Havoning ifloslanishi: Versiyalar orasidagi farq

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„Air pollution“ sahifasi tarjima qilib yaratildi
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16-Avgust 2022, 15:34 dagi koʻrinishi

Kokslangan pech orqali havoning ifloslanishi
2016-havo sifati ko'rsatkichi - ochiq ranglar havo sifati pastligini va havoning yuqori ifloslanganligini ko`rsatadi.
Har 100 000 aholiga havo ifloslanishi oqibatidagi o`lim (IHME, 2019)

Havoning ifloslanishi - Atmosferada odamlar va boshqa tirik mavjudotlar sog'lig'iga hamda iqlim yoki materiallarga zarar yetkazadigan moddalarning mavjudligi sababli kelib chiquvchi ifloslanish.[1] Gazlar (shu jumladan ammiak, karbon monoksit, oltingugurt dioksidi, azot oksidi, metan, karbonat angidrid va xlorftorokarbonlar, qattiq zarralar (organik va noorganik) va biologik molekulalar kabi havoni ifloslantiruvchi moddalarning har xil turlari mavjud. Havoning ifloslanishi odamlarni kasalliklarga yo`liqtirishi, ularda allergiyalarning paydo qilishi va hatto o'limga olib kelishi mumkin; u hayvonlar va oziq-ovqat ekinlari kabi boshqa tirik organizmlarga hamdatabiiy muhitga (masalan, iqlim o'zgarishi, ozon qatlamining yemirilishi yoki yashash muhitining buzilishi ) yoki yaratilgan atrof-muhitga (masalan, kislotali yomg'ir orqali) zarar yetkazishi mumkin.[2] Atmosferaning ifloslanishiga inson faoliyati ham, tabiat hodisalari ham sabab bo'la oladi.[3]

Havoning ifloslanishi nafas olish yo'llari infektsiyalari, yurak kasalliklari, KOAH, insult va o'pka saratoni kabi ifloslanish bilan bog'liq bir qator kasalliklar uchun muhim xavfli omilidir. [4] Mavjud muammo borasida olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, havo ifloslanishi IQ ko'rsatkichlarining pasayishi, idrokning buzilishi,[5] ruhiy tushkunlik[6] va perinatal salomatlikka zarar yetkazish kabi psixiatrik kasalliklar xavfining oshishi bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin.[7] Havoning yomon sifati inson salomatligiga ta'siri juda keng bo`lib, asosan tananing nafas olish tizimi va yurak-qon tomir tizimiga ta'sir qiladi. Havo ifloslantiruvchi moddalarga individual reaktsiyalar insonning ta'sir qilish darajasiga, inson salomatligiga shuningdek, genetikasiga bog'liq.[8]

Faqat qazib olinadigan yoqilg'idan foydalanish bilan bog'liq bo'lgan tashqi havo ifloslanishi har yili ~3,61 million kishining o'limiga sabab bo'ladi, bu uni antropogen ozon va PM2,5 bilan birga (~2,1 million) inson o'limiga eng ko'p hissa qo'shuvchilardan[9] biriga olib keladi.[10][11] Umuman olganda, har yili dunyo bo‘ylab 7 mln kishi havoning ifloslanishi oqibatida vafot etadi yoki o'rtacha umr ko'rish davomiyligining qisqarishiga (2,9 yil) sabab bo'ladi[12] va bu bu esa kamida 2015-yildan buyon sezilarli progressga erishmagan dunyodagi eng katta ekologik xavf hisoblanadi.[13][14][15] Ichki havoning ifloslanishi va shaharning havoning yomon sifati dunyodagi eng zaharli ifloslanish muammolaridan ikkitasi sifatida Blacksmith Instituti tomonidan 2008-yildagi dunyoning eng ifloslangan joylari hisobotida qayd etilgan.[16] Atmosfera ifloslanishi inqirozining ko'lami juda katta: dunyo aholisining 90 foizi ma'lum darajada iflos havodan nafas oladi. Sog'liq uchun yomon oqibatlari keng bo'lsa-da, muammoni hal qilish usuli asosan tasodifiy[17][18] yoki e'tibordan chetda qolgan.[15]

Havoning ifloslanishi natijasida hosildorlikning yo'qolishi va hayot sifatining yomonlashishi jahon iqtisodiyotiga yiliga 5 trillion dollarga tushadi.[19][20] Havo siatining yomonlashuvini kamaytirish uchun ifloslanishlarni turli xil nazorat qilish texnologiyalari va strategiyalari mavjud.[21][22] Atmosfera ifloslanishining salbiy oqibatlarini cheklash uchun bir qancha xalqaro va milliy qonunchilik hamda me'yoriy hujjatlar ishlab chiqilgan.[23] Mahalliy qoidalar to'g'ri bajarilganda, sog'liqni saqlash sohasida sezilarli yutuqlarga erishildi.[24] Ushbu sa'y-harakatlarning ba'zilari jumladan, ozonosferani buzuvchi zararli kimyoviy moddalarning chiqarilishini ozaytiradigan Monreal protokoli[25] va oltingugurt emissiyasini kamaytiradigan 1985-yildagi Helsinki protokoli xalqaro darajada muvaffaqiyatli bo'lib,[26][27] iqlim o'zgarishi bo'yicha xalqaro harakatlar[28][29][30] bundan mustasno.

Atmosferani ifloslantiruvchi manbalar

Antropogen (inson tomonidan yaratilgan) manbalar

Aviatsiya havo ifloslanishining asosiy manbai hisoblanadi.
Bahorgi ekishga tayyorgarlik ko'rish paytida Jorjiya shtatining Statesboro shahridan tashqarida dala nazorat ostida yondirildi
Ganada ochiq olovda baliq, 2018-yil

Bular asosan yoqilg'ining yonishi bilan bog'liq.

  • Statsionar manbalarga quyidagilar kiradi:
    • qazilma yoqilg'i elektr stansiyalari va biomassa elektr stansiyalari; ikkalasida ham tutun qatlamlari mavjud (misol uchun ko'mir sanoatining atrof-muhitga ta'siriga qarang)[31]
      • Metan sizib chiqadigan neft va gaz hududlari[32][33]
    • yog'och, ekin chiqindilari va go'ng kabi biomassani an'anaviy yoqish. (Rivojlanayotgan va kambag'al mamlakatlarda biomassani an'anaviy yoqish havoni ifloslantiruvchi moddalarning asosiy manbai hisoblanadi.[34][35] Shuningdek, u Buyuk Britaniya va Yangi Janubiy Wales kabi rivojlangan hududlarda zarralar bilan ifloslanishning asosiy manbai hisoblanadi.[36][37] Uning ifloslantiruvchi moddalariga PAU kiradi)
    • ishlab chiqarish ob'ektlari (zavodlar)[38]
      • 2014-yilgi tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, Xitoyda asbob-uskunalar, mashinalar va qurilmalar ishlab chiqarish va qurilish sohalari havoni ifloslantiruvchi moddalar emissiyasining 50% dan ortig'iga hissa qo'shgan.[39][yaxshiroq manba kerak] Bu yuqori emissiya yuqori emissiya intensivligi va uning sanoat tuzilishidagi yuqori emissiya omillari bilan bog'liq.[40]
    • chiqindilarni yoqish (yoqish pechlari, shuningdek, qattiq yer usti chiqindilarining to'rtdan bir qismini tashkil etuvchi boshqarilmaydigan chiqindilarni ochiq va nazoratsiz noto'g'ri yoqishlar)[41][42]
    • pechlar va boshqa turdagi yoqilg'i bilan ishlaydigan isitish moslamalari.[43]
  • Mobil manbalarga avtotransport vositalari, poyezdlar (xususan, teplovozlar va dizel-poyezdlar), dengiz kemalari va samolyotlar [44], shuningdek, raketalar hamda fazo chiqindilari kiradi.[45] Avtoulovlar tufayli havo ifloslanishiga tashqi havoga chiqariladigan gazlar va avtoulov shinalari (shu jumladan mikroplastmassalar[46]) kiradi. Ma'lumotlarga ko'ra, avtoulov "AQSh havo ifloslanishining taxminan uchdan bir qismini ishlab chiqaradi"[47][48][49]
  • Nazorat ostidagi yoqishdan foydalangan holda qishloq xo'jaligi va o'rmonlarni boshqarish strategiyalari. Amazonka kabi o'rmonlarda kesish va yoqish kabi amaliyotlar o'rmonlarning kesilishi bilan havoning katta ifloslanishiga olib keladi.[50] Nazorat ostida yoki belgilangan yondirish - bu o'rmonlarni boshqarish, qishloq xo'jaligi, dashtlarni tiklash va issiqxona gazlarini kamaytirishda qo'llaniladigan amaliyotdir.[51] O'rmonchilar boshqariladigan olovdan vosita sifatida foydalanishlari mumkin, chunki yong'in o'rmon va o'tloq ekologiyasining tabiiy xususiyatidir.[52][53] Nazorat ostida yonish ba'zi kerakli o'rmon daraxtlarining o'sishini ko`paytiradi, natijada o'rmon yangilanadi.[54]

Yonishdan tashqari jarayonlarning boshqa manbalari ham mavjud:

Mean acidifying emissions (air pollution) of different foods per 100g of protein[61]
Food Types Acidifying Emissions (g SO2eq per 100g protein)
Beef
343,6
Cheese
165,5
Pork
142,7
Lamb and mutton
139,0
Farmed crustaceans
133,1
Poultry
102,4
Farmed fish
65,9
Eggs
53,7
Groundnuts
22,6
Peas
8,5
Tofu
6,7

Tabiiy manbalar

1935-yilda Stratfordga (Texas) yaqinlashib kelayotgan chang bo'roni
  • Tabiiy manbalardan chang, odatda o'simliklari kam bo'lgan yoki o'simliksiz katta yerlar
  • Hayvonlar, masalan, qoramollar tomonidan oziq-ovqat hazm qilish natijasida chiqariladigan metan
  • Yer qobig'idagi radioaktiv parchalanishdan kelib chiqqan radon gazi. Radon rangsiz, hidsiz, tabiiy ravishda paydo bo'luvchi, radiyning parchalanishidan hosil bo'ladigan radioaktiv asil gazdir . Bu sog'liq uchun xavfli deb hisoblanadi. Tabiiy manbalardan olingan radon gazi binolarda, ayniqsa podval kabi cheklangan joylarda to'planishi mumkin va bu o'pka saratonining sigareta chekishdan keyin ikkinchi eng ko'p uchraydigan sababidir.
  • O'rmon yong'inlaridan chiquvchi tutun va uglerod oksidi. Faol o'rmon yong'inlari davrida biomassaning nazoratsiz yonishi natijasida hosil bo'lgan tutun kontsentratsiyasi bo'yicha barcha havo ifloslanishining deyarli 75% ni tashkil qilishi mumkin.[62]
  • Ba'zi hududlarda o'simliklar issiq kunlarda ekologik jihatdan muhim miqdorda uchuvchi organik birikmalar (inglizcha: votalitate organic compounds (VOC)) chiqaradi. Ushbu VOClar asosiy antropogen ifloslantiruvchi moddalar bilan reaksiyaga kirishadi– xususan, NOx, SO2 va antropogen organik uglerod birikmalari - ikkilamchi ifloslantiruvchi moddalarning mavsumiy tumanlarini hosil qiladi.[63] Qora saqich, terak, eman va majnuntol ko'p miqdorda VOC hosil qilishi mumkin bo'lgan o'simliklarning ba'zi namunalaridir. Ushbu turlardan VOC ishlab chiqarish ozon darajasini past ta'sirli daraxt turlaridan sakkiz baravar yuqori bo'lishiga olib keladi.[64]
  • Oltingugurt, xlor va kul zarralarini hosil qiluvchi vulqon faoliyati.[65]

Emissiya omillari

Pekin havosi 2005-yilda yomg'irdan keyin (chapda) va tutunli kunda (o'ngda)

Atmosferani ifloslantiruvchi emissiya omillari - bu atrof-muhit havosiga chiqadigan ifloslantiruvchi moddalar miqdorini ushbu ifloslantiruvchi moddalarning chiqarilishi bilan bog'liq faoliyat orqali bog'lashni maqsad qilgan reprezentativ qiymatlar.[66] Ifloslovchining og'irligi, ifloslantiruvchi moddalarni hosil qiluvchi faoliyatning birlik og'irligiga, hajmiga, masofasiga yoki vaqtiga qarab bo'linadi. Ushbu mezonlar turli xil ifloslanish manbalaridan chiqadigan chiqindilarni baholashni osonlashtiradi.

Turg'un organik ifloslantiruvchi moddalar ro'yxatida 12 ta birikma mavjuddir. Dioksinlar va furanlar ulardan ikkitasi bo'lib, plastiklarning ochiq yonishi kabi organik moddalarning yoqilishi natijasida maqsadli yaratiladi. Bu birikmalar ham endokrin buzuvchidir va inson genlarini mutatsiyaga olib kelishi mumkin.

Gananing Agbogbloshie shahrida mis kabi qimmatbaho metallarni topish maqsadida elektronikani ochiq yoqish yordamida elektron chiqindilarni qayta ishlash. Plastmassalarning ochiq yonishi dunyoning qayta ishlash imkoniyatisiz bo`lgan ko'p qismlarida keng tarqalgan. Bu esa og'ir metallar va boshqa ifloslantiruvchi moddalar tuproqqa kirib, suv va havo ifloslanishini keltirib chiqarishi mumkin.

Qo'shma Shtatlar atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish agentligi sanoat manbalarining keng doirasi uchun havoni ifloslantiruvchi moddalar emissiyasi omillari to'plamini nashr etgan.[67]

Ifloslantiruvchilar

Sxematik chizma, havo ifloslanishining sabablari va oqibatlari: (1) issiqxona ta`siri, (2) zarralar bilan ifloslanish, (3) ultrabinafsha nurlanishining kuchayishi, (4) kislotali yomg'ir, (5) troposferik ozon kontsentratsiyasining oshishi, (6) yuqori daradagi azot oksidi

Havoni ifloslantiruvchi moddalar inson va ekotizimga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin bo'lgan havodagi materialdir.[68] Modda qattiq zarralar, suyuq tomchilar yoki gazlardan iborat bo`ladi. Ifloslantiruvchi tabiiy kelib chiqishi yoki texnogen bo'lishi mumkin. Ifloslantiruvchi moddalar birlamchi va ikkilamchi deb tasniflanadi. Birlamchi ifloslantiruvchi moddalar odatda vulqon otilishi natijasida hosil bo'luvchi kul kabi jarayonlar natijasida hosil bo'ladi. Boshqa misollar orasida avtoulov chiqindisidan chiqadigan uglerod oksidi yoki fabrikalardan chiquvchioltingugurt dioksidi kiradi. Ikkilamchi ifloslantiruvchi moddalar to'g'ridan-to'g'ri hosil bo`lmaydi. Aksincha, ular asosiy ifloslantiruvchi moddalar reaksiyaga kirishganda yoki havoda o'zaro ta'sirlashganda hosil bo'ladi. Troposferik ozon ikkilamchi ifloslantiruvchi moddalarning yorqin namunasidir. Ba'zi ifloslantiruvchi moddalar ham birlamchi, ham ikkilamchi bo'lishi mumkin.

Inson faoliyati natijasida atmosferaga chiqadigan ifloslantiruvchi moddalarga quyidagilar kiradi:

  • Karbonat angidrid (CO2): Issiqxona gazi roli tufayli u "yetakchi ifloslantiruvchi"[69] va "eng yomon iqlim ifloslantiruvchisi" sifatida tavsiflangan.[70] Karbonat angidrid atmosferaning tabiiy tarkibiy qismi bo'lib, o'simliklar hayoti uchun zarurdir va inson nafas olish tizimi tomonidan hosil bo`ladi.[71] Yer atmosferasida CO2 ko'payishi tez suratlarda oshmoqda.[72]
  • Oltingugurt oksidlari (SOx): ayniqsa oltingugurt dioksidi, SO2 formulali kimyoviy birikma. SO2 vulqonlar va turli sanoat jarayonlarida hosil bo`ladi. Ko'mir va neft ko'pincha oltingugurt birikmalarini o'z ichiga oladi va ularning yonishi oltingugurt dioksidini hosil qiladi. SO2 ning keyingi oksidlanishi, odatda, NO2 kabi katalizator ishtirokida, H2 SO4 hosil qiladi va shu bilan kislotali yomg'ir hosil bo'ladi. Bu yoqilg'ilardan energiya manbalari sifatida foydalanishning atrof-muhitga ta'siri haqida tashvishlanish sabablaridan biridir.
  • Azot oksidi (NOx): Azot oksidi, xususan, azot dioksidi yuqori haroratli yonish natijasida chiqariladi, shuningdek, <a href="./Momaqaldiroq" rel="mw:WikiLink" data-linkid="undefined" data-cx="{&quot;userAdded&quot;:true,&quot;adapted&quot;:true}">momaqaldiroq</a> paytida elektr zaryadsizlanishi natijasida hosil bo'ladi. Azot dioksidi NO2 formulasiga ega kimyoviy birikma. Bu bir nechta azot oksidlaridan biridir. Atmosferani ifloslantiruvchi moddalardan biri bo'lgan bu qizil-jigarrang zaharli gaz o'ziga xos o'tkir hidga ega.
  • Uglerod oksidi (CO): CO formulali rangsiz, hidsiz, zaharli gazdir.[73] Bu tabiiy gaz, ko'mir yoki o'tin kabi yoqilg'ining yonish mahsulotidir. Avtoulov chiqindisi atmosferaga chiquvchi uglerod oksidining katta qismini tashkil qiladi. Bu havoda ko'plab o'pka kasalliklari hamda tabiiy muhit buzilishi va hayvonlarga zarar yetkazish bilan bog'liq bo'lgan tutun turini hosil qiladi.
  • Uchuvchi organik birikmalar (VOC): VOClar tashqi havoni ifloslantiruvchi moddalardir. Ular metan (CH4 ) yoki metan bo'lmagan (NMVOCs) deb tasniflanadi. Metan global isishning kuchayishiga hissa qo'shadigan shiddatli issiqxona gazidir. Boshqa uglevodorod VOC'lar ham ozon yaratish va atmosferada metanning umrini uzaytirishdagi roli tufayli muhim issiqxona gazlari hisoblanadi. Bu ta'sir mahalliy havo sifatiga qarab o'zgaradi. Aromatik NMVOCs benzol, toluol va ksilen uzoq vaqt davomida ta'sir qilish bilan leykemiyaga olib kelishi mumkin. 1,3-butadien ko'pincha sanoatda foydalanish bilan bog'liq yana bir xavfli birikma hisoblanadi.
  • Zarralar, shuningdek, zarrachalar (PM), atmosfera zarrachalari (APM) yoki mayda zarralar deb ham ataladi, gaz tarkibidagi mikroskopik qattiq yoki suyuq zarralardir.[74] Boshqa tomondan, aerozol zarralar va gaz aralashmasidir. Vulqonlar, chang bo'ronlari, o'rmon va o'tloq yong'inlari, tirik o'simliklar va dengiz purkagichlari zarrachalar manbalaridir. Aerozollar avtoulovlarda, elektr stantsiyalarda va ko'plab sanoat jarayonlarida qazib olinadigan yoqilg'ining yonishi kabi inson faoliyati natijasida hosil bo'ladi.[75] Dunyo bo'yicha o'rtacha, antropogen aerozollar - inson faoliyati natijasida yaratilgan. Hozirgi vaqtda havoning taxminan 10% ni tashkil qiladi. Havodagi mayda zarrachalarning ko'payishi yurak xastaligi,[76] o'pka funktsiyasining o'zgarishi va o'pka saratoni kabi sog'liq uchun zararli kasalliklarni olib keladi. Zarrachalar nafas yo'llarining infektsiyalari bilan bog'liq bo'lib, astma kabi kasalliklarga chalinganlar uchun xavfli bo'lishi mumkin.[77]
  • Havodagi mayda zarralar bilan bog'langan doimiy erkin radikallar yurak kasalliklar bilan bog'liq.[78][79]
  • Qo'rg'oshin va simob kabi zaharli metallar va ularning birikmalari.
  • Xlorflorokarbonlar (CFC): Hzoirda foydalanish taqiqlangan tovarlardan chiqariladi; ozon qatlamiga zararli. Bu konditsionerlar, muzlatgichlar, aerozol purkagichlari va boshqa shunga o'xshash qurilmalar tomonidan chiqariladigan gazlardir. CFClar atmosferaga chiqarilgandan keyin stratosferaga yetib boradi.[80] Ular u yerda boshqa gazlar bilan o'zaro ta'sirlashib, ozon qatlamiga zarar yetkazadilar. Buning natijasida ultrabinafsha nurlar yer yuzasiga yetib borishi mumkin. Bu teri saratoni, ko'z muammolari va hatto o'simliklarning shikastlanishiga olib keladi.[81]
  • <a href="./Ammiak" rel="mw:WikiLink" data-linkid="undefined" data-cx="{&quot;userAdded&quot;:true,&quot;adapted&quot;:true}">Ammiak</a>: asosan qishloq xo'jaligi chiqindilari tomonidan chiqariladi. Ammiak NH3 formulali birikmadir. Odatda u o'ziga xos o'tkir hidli gaz sifatida uchraydi. Ammiak oziq-ovqat va o'g'itlar uchun kashshof bo'lib, quruqlikdagi organizmlarning ozuqaviy ehtiyojlariga sezilarli hissa qo'shadi. Ammiak gidroksidi keng qo'llanilishiga qaramay xavflidir.[82] Atmosferada ammiak azot va oltingugurt oksidlari bilan reaksiyaga kirishib, ikkilamchi zarrachalarni hosil qiladi.[83]
  • Hidlar: axlat, kanalizatsiya va sanoat jarayonidan kelib chiqadi.
  • Radioaktiv ifloslantiruvchi moddalar: yadroviy portlashlar, yadroviy hodisalar, urushdagi portlovchi moddalari va radonning radioaktiv parchalanishi kabi tabiiy jarayonlar natijasida hosil bo'ladi.

Ikkilamchi ifloslantiruvchi moddalarga quyidagilar kiradi:

  • Fotokimyoviy smog: gazsimon asosiy ifloslantiruvchi va kimyoviy moddalardan hosil bo'ladi.[84] Smog - havoda yuzaga keladigan ifloslanish turi. Smog ma'lum bir hududda tutun va oltingugurt dioksidi aralashmasi paydo bo'luvchi katta hajmdagi ko'mir yoqilishi natijasida yuzaga keladi.[85] Zamonaviy smog odatda avtoulov va sanoat chiqindilari tufayli yuzaga keladi, ular quyoshdan ultrabinafsha nurlar ta'sirida atmosferaga ta'sir qilib, ikkilamchi ifloslantiruvchi moddalarni hosil qiladi, keyinchalik ular fotokimyoviy tutun hosil qilish uchun birlamchi emissiyalar bilan birlashadi.
  • Troposferik ozon (O3 ): NOx va VOC aralashmasidan hosil bo'luvchi ozon.[86] Shuningdek, u stratosferaning turli qismlarida joylashgan ozon qatlamining muhim qismidir. U bilan bog'liq fotokimyoviy va kimyoviy reaktsiyalar kunduzi va kechasi atmosferada sodir bo'ladigan ko'plab kimyoviy faoliyatni kuchaytiradi. Bu inson faoliyati (asosan, qazib olinadigan yoqilg'ilarning yonishi) natijasida ko'p miqdorda hosil bo'ladigan ifloslantiruvchi va smogning tarkibiy qismidir.[87]
  • Peroksiatsetil nitrat (C2 H3 NO5): xuddi shunday NOx va VOClardan hosil bo'ladi.

Kichik havo ifloslantiruvchi moddalarga quyidagilar kiradi:

  • Ko'p miqdordagi kichik xavfli havo ifloslantiruvchi moddalar. Ulardan ba'zilari AQShda Toza havo to'g'risidagi qonun (inglizcha: Clean Air Act), Yevropada esa Havo asoslari direktivasi (inglizcha: Air Framework Directive) ostida tartibga solinadi.

Turg'un organik ifloslantiruvchi moddalar kimyoviy, biologik yoki fotolitik jarayonlar tufayli atrof-muhitning buzilishiga chidamli organik birikmalardir. Natijada, ular atrof-muhitda omon qolishi, uzoq masofaga yoyilishi, inson va hayvonlar to'qimalarida bioto'planishi, oziq-ovqat zanjirlarida biomagnitsiyalanishi va inson salomatligi va ekotizimiga katta xavf tug'dirishi aniqlangan.[88]

Ichki havo sifati

Ichki havoning ifloslanishidan topilgan o`limlar
Havo sifati monitoringi, Nyu-Dehli, Hindiston

Odamlar asosiy vaqtlarining ko'p qismini o'tkazuvchi binolarda ventilyatsiya yetishmasligi havoning ifloslanishiga sabab bo'ladi. Radon (Rn) gazi, kanserogen bo'lib, ma'lum joylarda Yerdan ajralib chiqadi va uylar ichiga joylashadi. Qurilish materiallari, shu jumladan gilam va faner formaldegid (H2CO) gazini chiqaradi. Bo'yoq va erituvchilar quriganida uchuvchi organik birikmalarni (VOC) hosil qiladi. Qo'rg'oshin bo'yog'i changga aylanishi va odamlar undan nafas olishi mumkin. Havoni qasddan ifloslantirish xushbo`y havo purkagichlari, tutatqilari va boshqa xushbo'y narsalardan foydalanish bilan kiritiladi. Oshxona pechlari va kaminlarni nazoratli yoqish natijasida havoga, ichkariga va tashqariga sezilarli miqdorda zararli tutun zarralarini chiqarish mumkun.[89][90] Ichkarining ifloslanish xavflariga pestitsidlar va boshqa kimyoviy purkagichlarni to'g'ri ventilyatsiya qilinmagan holda ishlatish sabab bo'lishi mumkin.

Uglerod oksidi bilan zaharlanish va o'lim holatlari ko'pincha shamollatish teshiklarining noto'g'riligi yoki yopiq joylarda ko'mirni yoqish natijasida yuzaga keladi.[91] Surunkali uglerod oksidi bilan zaharlanish hatto noto'g'ri sozlangan chiroqlardan ham kelib chiqishi mumkin.

Asbestdan foydalanish ko'pgina mamlakatlarda taqiqlangan bo'lsa-da, o'tmishda sanoat va maishiy muhitda uni katta miqdorlarda ishlatish ko'plab joylarda potentsial o'ta xavfli materiallarni qoldirgan. Asbestoz - o'pka to'qimalariga ta'sir qiluvchi surunkali yallig'lanishli tibbiy kasallikdir. Asbestoz bilan og'rigan bemorlarda og'ir nafas qisilishi mavjud bo`lib, o'pka saratonining bir nechta turlari bilan bog'liq xavf yuqoridir. Jahon sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti (JSST) ma'lumotlariga ko'ra,[92] asbestoz, o'pka saratoni va peritoneal mezotelioma sifatida aniqlanishi mumkin.

Atmosfera ifloslanishining biologik manbalari, shuningdek, gazlar va havodagi zarrachalar kabi binolarda ham topilgan. Biologik manbalarga <a href="./Uy%20hayvonlari" rel="mw:WikiLink" data-linkid="undefined" data-cx="{&quot;userAdded&quot;:true,&quot;adapted&quot;:true}">uy hayvonlaridan</a> ajraluvchi teri po`stloq qatlami, odamlarning teri parchalari va sochlardan tushuvchi qillar, choyshablar, gilamlar va mebellardagi <a href="./Chang" rel="mw:WikiLink" data-linkid="undefined" data-cx="{&quot;userAdded&quot;:true,&quot;adapted&quot;:true}">chang</a> fermentlar va mikrometr o'lchamdagi najas axlatlaridan paydo bo`luvchi metan, devorlardagi mikotoksinlar va sporalarni hosil qiluvchi mog'or, shuningdek, chang va mog'or hosil qiluvchi uy o'simliklari, tuproq va uning atrofidagi bog'lardagi gulchanglar kiradi.

Sog'likka ta'siri

Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari regulyatorlari tomonidan xavfsiz deb hisoblanganidan havo ifloslanishining uchta komponenti bo`lmish mayda zarrachalar, azot dioksidi va ozonning ta`siri yurak va nafas olish kasalliklari bilan bog'liq.[93] 2020-yilda ifloslanish (shu jumladan havoning ifloslanishi) Yevropada har sakkizinchi o`limning sababi bo`lgan va ifloslanish bilan bog'liq kasalliklar, shu jumladan yurak kasalliklari, insult va o'pka saratoni uchun muhim xavfli omil edi.[94] Havoning ifloslanishi natijasida kelib chiqadigan sog'liqqa ta'siri nafas olish, xirillash, yo'tal, astma[95] va mavjud nafas olish va yurak kasalliklarining yomonlashishini o'z ichiga olishi mumkin. Ushbu ta'sirlar dori vositalaridan foydalanishning ko'payishiga, shifokor yoki tez yordam bo'limiga tashrif buyurishning va kasalxonadagi bemorlarning ko'payishiga hamda erta o'limga olib kelishi mumkin. Havoning yomon sifati inson salomatligiga ta'siri katta bo`lib, asosan tananing nafas olish tizimi va yurak-qon tomir tizimiga ta'sir qiladi.[8] Atmosfera ifloslanishining eng keng tarqalgan manbalariga zarrachalar, ozon, azot dioksidi va oltingugurt dioksidi kiradi. Rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlarda yashovchi besh yoshgacha bo'lgan bolalar ichki va tashqi havoning ifloslanishi bilan bog'liq jami o'limlar bo'yicha eng zaif aholi hisoblanadi.[96]

O'lim

Har yili havo ifloslanishidan vafot etganlar sonining diagrammasi
Tashqi havoning ifloslanishidan o'limlar ulushi, OWID

Jahon sog‘liqni saqlash tashkilotining 2014-yilgi hisob-kitoblariga ko‘ra, har yili havoning ifloslanishi dunyo bo‘ylab 7 millionga yaqin odamning bevaqt o‘limiga sabab bo‘lgan. 2019-yil mart oyida chop etilgan tadqiqotlar bu raqam 8,8 million atrofida bo'lishi mumkinligini ko'rsatgan.[97] 2022-yilgi tahlil havoning ifloslanishi 2019-yilda 6,67 (5,90–7,49) million erta o'limga sabab bo'lgan degan xulosaga keldi. O'lim sabablari orasida qon tomirlari, yurak kasalliklari, o'pka saratoni va o'pka infektsiyalari mavjud.[4]

Shahar havosining ifloslanishi har yili dunyo bo'ylab 1,3 million kishining o'limiga sabab bo'ladi.[98] Ayniqsa, bolalar nafas olish organlari tizimining yetilmaganligi tufayli xavf ostidadir.[99] 2015-yilda tashqi havoning, asosan, PM2,5 bilan ifloslanishi, dunyo bo'ylab Osiyoda yiliga 3,3 (95% CI 1,61–4,81) million erta o'limga olib kelishi taxmin qilingan.[59] 2021-yilda JSST tashqi havoning ifloslanishi 2016-yilda dunyo bo'ylab 4,2 million erta o'limga sabab bo'lishi taxmin qilinganini ma'lum qilgan.[100] 2020-yilgi tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatadiki, 2015-yilda havo ifloslanishidan umr ko'rish davomiyligining qisqarishi 2,9 yilni tashkil etgan, bu to'g'ridan-to'g'ri zo'ravonlikning barcha shakllaridan 0,3 yildan sezilarli darajada ko'proq ekanligini ko`rsatadi.[12]

2022-yilda GeoHealthda chop etilgan tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, Qo'shma Shtatlarda energiya bilan bog'liq qazib olinadigan yoqilg'i chiqindilarini yo'q qilish har yili 46,900-59,400 erta o'limning oldini oladi va PM2.5 bilan bog'liq kasalliklar va o'limning oldini olish uchun 537-678 milliard dollar foyda keltiradi.[101]

Mintaqa bo'yicha

Hindiston va Xitoyda havoning ifloslanishidan kelib chiqadigan o'lim darajasi eng yuqori sanaladi.[102][103] Jahon sog'liqni saqlash tashkiloti ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, Hindistonda astmadan vafot etganlar soni nisbatan ko`proq. 2013-yil dekabr oyidagi tadqiqotlarga ko`ra, Xitoyda havoning ifloslanishi har yili 500 000 kishining o'limiga sabab bo'lgan.[104]

Har yili Yevropada havoning ifloslanishi oqibatida erta o‘lim holatlari 430 000 [105] dan 800 000 gacha baholanmoqda.[97] Ushbu o'limning muhim sababi yo'l transporti tomonidan azot dioksidi va azot oksidining (NOx) havoga chiqarilishidir.[105] 2015-yilgi maslahat hujjatida Buyuk Britaniya hukumati azot dioksidi Buyuk Britaniyada yiliga 23,500 erta o'limga sabab bo'lishini oshkor qilgan.[106] Yevropa Ittifoqi bo'ylab havoning ifloslanishi umr ko'rish davomiyligini deyarli to'qqiz oyga qisqartirishi mumkinligini taxmin qilinmoqda.[107]

Asosiy sabablar

G20 davlatlari o'rtasidagi izga asoslangan va transchegaraviy ifloslanishga asoslangan munosabatlarni PM 2.5 bilan bog'liq erta o'limlar soni bo'yicha taqqoslash. [108]

Havoning ifloslanishiga eng katta sabab qazib olinadigan yoqilg'ining yonishi natijasida hosil bo'ladi[109](asosan avtomobillarni ishlab chiqarish va ulardan foydalanish, elektr energiyasini ishlab chiqarish va isitish).[110] Greenpeace tomonidan o'tkazilgan tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatadiki, dunyo bo'ylab har yili 4,5 million erta o'lim yuqori emissiyali elektr stantsiyalari va avtomobil chiqindilari chiqaradigan ifloslantiruvchi moddalar tufayli sodir bo'ladi.[111]


Birlamchi mexanizmlar

JSST hisob-kitoblariga ko'ra, 2016-yilda tashqi havoning ifloslanishi bilan bog'liq erta o'limlarning 58 foizi yurak kasalligi va insult tufayli sodir bo'lgan.[100] Havoning ifloslanishini yurak-qon tomir o'limining ortishi bilan bog'laydigan mexanizmlar noaniq, ammo ehtimol ila o'pka va tizimli yallig'lanishni o'z ichiga oladi.[112]

Bugungi kundagi yillik o'limlar

Buyuk Britaniya va AQSh universitetlari olimlari tomonidan olib borilgan tadqiqot qazib olinadigan yoqilg'ining yonishi natijasida hosil bo'lgan havo ifloslanishi bilan bog'liq o`lim soni 2021-yilda 10,4 million, 2012-yilda 8,7 million va 2018-yilda 5 million bo'lib, oldingi hisob-kitoblarga qaraganda ancha yuqori degan xulosaga kelgan.[113][109]

JSST ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, dunyo bo'ylab har 8 o'limdan 1 tasi havoning ifloslanishi tufayli yuzaga keladi.[114]

Yurak-qon tomir kasalligi

2007-yildagi dalillarni ko'rib chiqish shuni ko'rsatdiki, atrof-muhit havosining ifloslanishi yurak-qon tomir kasalliklari tufayli o'limning ortishi bilan bog'liq bo`lgan xavf omilidir.

Havoning ifloslanishi, ifloslantiruvchi moddalar darajasi eng yuqori bo'lgan rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlarda insult uchun xavf omili sifatida paydo bo'lgan.[115] 2007-yilgi tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, ayollarda havo ifloslanishi gemorragik emas, balki ishemik insult bilan bog'liq.[116]

O'pka kasalligi

Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, astma [117] va surunkali obstruktiv o'pka kasalligi (KOAH)[118] rivojlanish xavfining ortishi transport bilan bog'liq havo ifloslanishiga ta'sir qiladi. KOAH surunkali bronxit va amfizem kabi kasalliklarni o'z ichiga oladi.[119] Havoning ifloslanishidan kelib chiqqan o'pka kasalliklari xavfi quyidagi odamlar guruhlari uchun eng yuqori sanaladi: chaqaloqlar va yosh bolalar, ularning normal nafas olishi kattaroq bolalar va kattalarnikiga qaraganda tezroq; qariyalar; tashqarida ishlaydigan yoki ko'p vaqtini tashqarida o'tkazadiganlar; va yurak hamda o'pka kasalligiga chalinganlar.[120]

Saraton (o'pka saratoni)

PM2.5 havo ifloslanishiga himoyalanmagan tarzda ta'sir qilish kuniga bir nechta sigaret chekish bilan teng bo'lishi mumkin va[121] saraton xavfini oshirishi mumkin, bu asosan atrof-muhit omillarining natijasidir.[122]

2007-yilda atrof-muhit havosining ifloslanishi saraton kasalligi uchun xavf omili ekanligi haqidagi dalillarni ko'rib chiqish PM2.5 (nozik zarrachalar) ning uzoq muddatli ta'sir qilishi tasodifiy bo'lmagan o'limning umumiy xavfini har yili 6% ga oshiradi degan xulosaga kelish uchun aniq ma'lumotlarni topgan. Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatdiki, tirbandlikka yaqin joyda yashash o'pka saratoni, yurak-qon tomir kasalliklari ushbu natijaning yuqori xavfi bilan bog'liq.

Buyrak kasalligi

2021-yilda 2001–2016 yillar davomida 163 197 nafar Tayvan aholisini o‘rganish natijasida PM2.5 kontsentratsiyasining har 5 mkg /m 3 ga kamayishi surunkali buyrak kasalligi rivojlanish xavfini 25 foizga kamaytirishi bilan bog‘liqligini taxmin qildi.[123] 10 997 aterosklerozli bemorlar ishtirok etgan akkord tadqiqotiga ko'ra, yuqori PM 2,5 ta'siri albuminuriyaning kuchayishi bilan bog'liq.[124]

Bolalar

Hindistonning Nyu-Dehli kabi shaharlarida bolalar salomatligini ta'minlash bo'yicha himoya choralari ko'rilmoqda, bu yerda avtobuslar smogni yo'qotish uchun siqilgan tabiiy gazdan foydalanadi.[125] Yaqinda Yevropada o'tkazilgan tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, o'ta nozik zarrachalarning ta'siri bolalarda qon bosimini oshirishi mumkin.[126] JSSTning 2018-yilgi hisobotiga ko'ra, ifloslangan havo 15 yoshgacha bo'lgan millionlab bolalarning zaharlanishiga olib kelgan va bu har yili olti yuz mingga yaqin bolalarning hayotiga zomin bo`ladi.[127]

Chaqaloqlar

Atrof-muhitning ifloslanish darajasi muddatidan oldin va kam vazn bilan tug`ilish asoratlari bilan bog`liq. 2014-yilda JSST tomonidan onalar va perinatal salomatlik bo'yicha butun dunyo bo'ylab o'tkazilgan so'rovda kam vaznli tug'ilishning va PM 2.5 ta'sirining ortishi o'rtasida statistik jihatdan muhim bog'liqlik aniqlangan. Xavfning ona va bolaga ta'siri yallig'lanishni kuchaytirish va oksidlovchi stressni oshirishdan iborat deb hisoblanadi.

York universiteti tomonidan o'tkazilgan tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, 2010-yilda PM 2,5 ta'siri dunyo bo'ylab erta tug'ilishlarning 18 foizi bilan kuchli bog'liq bo'lib, bu taxminan 2,7 million muddatdan oldin tug'ilishni tashkil etgan. Havoning eng yuqori ifloslanishi tufayli erta tug'ilish bilan bog'liq bo'lgan mamlakatlarga Janubiy va Sharqiy Osiyo, Yaqin Sharq, Shimoliy Afrika va G'arbiy Sahroi Kabir kiradi.[128]

"Toza" hududlar

JSST ko'rsatmalarining yuqori havo ifloslanishi darajasiga duchor bo'lgan aholi ulushi

Havoning ifloslanish darajasi nisbatan past bo'lgan hududlarda ham ko'plab odamlar ifloslantiruvchi moddalar bilan nafas olishi aholining sog'lig'iga ta'siri sezilarli bo`lishi va qimmatga tushishi mumkin. 2005-yilda Britaniya Kolumbiyasi o'pka assotsiatsiyasi (inglizcha: British Columbia Lung Association) uchun olib borilgan ilmiy tadqiqot shuni ko'rsatdiki, havo sifatining ozgina yaxshilanishi (atrofdagi PM2,5 va ozon kontsentratsiyasining 1% ga kamayishi) 2010-yilda Vankuver metrosida yiliga 29 million dollar tejash imkonini beradi.[129]

2020-yilda olimlar Antarktida atrofidagi Janubiy okean ustidagi chegara qatlami havosi odamlar tomonidan “ifloslanmagan”ligini aniqladilar.[130]

Markaziy asab tizimi

Havoning ifloslanishi markaziy asab tizimiga ham ta'sir qilishi haqida ma'lumotlar to'planib bormoqda.[131]

Havoning ifloslanishi 50 yoshdan oshgan odamlarda demans xavfini oshiradi.[132] Ichki havoning ifloslanishi bolalalarda kognitiv funktsiya va neyrorivojlanishga salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatishi mumkin.[133] Prenatal ta'sir neyrorivojlanishga ham ta'sir qilishi mumkin.[134] Tadqiqotlar shuni ko'rsatadiki, havoning ifloslanishi turli xil rivojlanish nuqsonlari, oksidlovchi stress va neyro-yallig'lanish bilan bog'liq va u Altsgeymer kasalligi va Parkinson kasalligiga olib keladi.[135]

Sichqonlarni o'rganishda havo ifloslanishi urg'ochilarga qaraganda erkaklarga ko'proq salbiy ta'sir ko'rsatgan.[136]

Qishloq xo'jaligiga ta'siri

2014-yilda Hindistonda havoning qora uglerod va yer sathining ozon bilan ifloslanishi 2011-yilda 1980-yilga nisbatan eng koʻp zarar koʻrgan hududlarda hosildorlikni deyarli ikki baravar kamaytirgani xabar qilingan edi.[137]

Kamaytirish va tartibga solish

Ifloslanishning oldini olish barqaror ishlab chiqarish jarayonlarini (va mahsulotlar dizaynini)[138] loyihalash kabi sanoat va tadbirkorlik faoliyatiga tuzatishlar kiritish, shuningdek, qayta tiklanadigan energiya manbalariga o'tish bo'yicha harakatlarni o'z ichiga olishi mumkin.[139][140]

Havodagi zarrachalarni kamaytirishga qaratilgan sa'y-harakatlar sog'liqning yaxshilanishiga olib kelishi mumkin.[141]

Ifloslanishni nazorat qilish

Gananing Akkra shahridagi Jeymstaun atrofini ifloslantiruvchi narsalarni yoqish

Havoning ifloslanishini kamaytirish uchun turli xil ifloslanishlarni nazorat qilish texnologiyalari va strategiyalari mavjud.[21][22] Eng asosiy darajada, yerdan foydalanishni rejalashtirish, ehtimol, rayonlashtirish va transport infratuzilmasini rejalashtirishni o'z ichiga oladi. Aksariyat rivojlangan mamlakatlarda yerdan foydalanishni rejalashtirish ijtimoiy siyosatning muhim bo‘g‘ini bo‘lib, yerdan kengroq iqtisodiyot va aholi manfaatlari yo‘lida samarali foydalanish hamda atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilishni ta’minlaydi.[142]

Titan dioksidi havo ifloslanishini kamaytirish qobiliyati uchun tadqiq qilingan. Ultrabilafsha nurlar materialdan erkin elektronlarni chiqaradi va shu bilan erkin radikallarni hosil qiladi.

Ifloslanish uchun muqobillar

Yevropa investitsiya banki iqlim tadqiqoti respondentlari tomonidan Yevropa, Xitoy va AQSh shahar markazlarida yuqori emissiyali avtomobillarni taqiqlashni qo‘llab-quvvatlash
Atmosferaning ifloslanishiga olib kelmaydigan jamoat transporti shakllarini qo'llab-quvvatlash, ulardan foydalanish va infratuzilmasini kengaytirish ifloslanishning muhim alternativi bo'lishi mumkin.

Hozirgi vaqtda havo ifloslanishining asosiy sabablariga amaliy alternativalar mavjud:

  • Jamoat transporti turlaridan,[143] velosipeddan hamda infratuzilmalardan foydalanish (shuningdek, masofaviy ish, ishlarning qisqarishi, boshqa joyga ko'chishi bilan almashtirish va mahalliylashtirish)
    • Yoqilg'i vositalaridan bosqichma-bosqich voz kechish barqaror transportga o'tishning muhim tarkibiy qismidir; Biroq, elektr transport vositalari kabi shunga o'xshash infratuzilma va dizayn qarorlari ishlab chiqarish, shuningdek, ko'p miqdordagi zarur akkumulyatorlar uchun kon va resurslardan foydalanish ifloslanish bilan bog'liq bo'lishi mumkin.[144]
  • Kema harakatini tabiiy gaz kabi toza yoqilg'iga o'tkazish mumkin.
  • Qazib olinadigan yoqilg'ilarning yonishi natijasida hosil bo'ladigan elektr energiyasi yadro va qayta tiklanadigan energiya bilan almashtirilishi mumkin. Mintaqaviy havoning ifloslanishiga sezilarli hissa qo'shadigan isitish va uy pechlari rivojlanmagan mamlakatlarda tabiiy gaz yoki qayta tiklanadigan energiya kabi toza yoqilg'i bilan almashtirilishi mumkin.[145][146]
  • Shahar havosining ifloslanishining asosiy omili bo'lgan qazib olinadigan yoqilg'i bilan ishlaydigan avtotransport vositalarini elektr transport vositalari bilan almashtirish mumkin.
  • Avtotransportda sayohatni qisqartirish ifloslanishni cheklashi mumkin.[147]

Nazorat qurilmalari

to'r ko'pincha qurilish maydonchalaridan chiqadigan chang miqdorini kamaytirish uchun ishlatiladi.

Quyidagi elementlar odatda sanoat va transport tufayli ifloslanishni nazorat qilish manbalari sifatida ishlatiladi. Ular ifloslantiruvchi moddalarni yo'q qilishlari yoki atmosferaga chiqarilishidan oldin ularni egzoz oqimidan olib tashlashlari mumkin.  

Monitoring

Havo sifatini fazoviy-vaqtinchalik monitoringi havo sifatini yaxshilash va shu orqali aholi salomatligi va xavfsizligini ta'minlash uchun zarur bo'lishi mumkin.[148] Bunday monitoring turli darajada, turli xil tartibga soluvchi talablar bilan, turli tashkilotlar va boshqaruv organlari tomonidan turli mintaqaviy qamrov bilan amalga oshiriladi.[149] Ba'zi veb-saytlar mavjud ma'lumotlardan foydalangan holda havo ifloslanish darajasini xaritaga tushirishga harakat qiladi.[150]

Normativ hujjatlar

Qohiradagi smog

Umuman olganda, havo sifati standartlarining ikki turi mavjud. Standartlarning birinchi sinfi (masalan, AQSH Milliy atrof-muhit havosi sifati standartlari va Yevropa Ittifoqi havo sifati direktivasi[151]) muayyan ifloslantiruvchi moddalar uchun maksimal atmosfera kontsentratsiyasini belgilaydi. Atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish idoralari ushbu maqsadli darajalarga erishishga qaratilgan qoidalarni ishlab chiqadilar. Ikkinchi sinf (Shimoliy Amerika havo sifati indeksi kabi) ochiq havoda harakat qilishning nisbiy xavfini jamoatchilikka yetkazish uchun ishlatiladigan turli chegaralarga ega shkala shaklida bo'ladi.

Kanada

Kanadada havoning ifloslanishi va u bilan bog'liq sog'liq uchun xavflar Havo sifati salomatlik indeksi (inglizcha: Air Quality Health Index (AQHI)) bilan o'lchanadi.[152] Bu havo ifloslanishi darajasining oshishi paytida faollik darajasini sozlash orqali havo ifloslanishiga qisqa muddatli ta'sir qilishni kamaytirish bo'yicha qarorlar qabul qilish uchun ishlatiladigan sog'liqni saqlash vositasidir.

AQHI - Kanada Sog'liqni saqlash va Atrof-muhit bo'yicha Kanada tomonidan birgalikda muvofiqlashtirilgan federal dastur. AQHI mahalliy havo sifati bilan bog'liq sog'liq uchun xavf darajasini ko'rsatishda 1 dan 10+ gacha bo'lgan raqamni taqdim etadi. Vaqti-vaqti bilan, havo ifloslanishi miqdori g'ayritabiiy darajada yuqori bo'lsa, ularning soni 10 dan oshishi mumkin. AQHI mahalliy havo sifati joriy qiymatini, shuningdek, tun va kun mahalliy havo sifatining maksimal prognozini taqdim etadi va sog`liq uchun tegishli maslahatlar beradi.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 +
Xavf: Past (1–3) Oʻrtacha (4–6) Yuqori (7–10) Juda yuqori (10 dan yuqori)

AQHI hid, gulchang, chang, issiqlik yoki namlik ta'sirini o'lchamaydi.

Germaniya

TA Luft - bu Germaniya havo sifatini tartibga solish dasturidir.[153]

Shaharlar

2002–2004 yillardagi sunʼiy yoʻldoshdan o`lchangan azot dioksidi konsentratsiyasi

Havoning ifloslanishi odatda aholi zich joylashgan metropoliyalarda, ayniqsa shaharlar tez o'sayotgan va atrof-muhitni muhofaza qilish qoidalari nisbatan zaif yoki umuman mavjud bo'lmagan rivojlanayotgan mamlakatlarda to'planadi. Urbanizatsiya tez rivojlanayotgan tropik shaharlarda havoning antropogen ifloslanishi tufayli erta o'limning yuqori darajada ko`payishiga olib keladi.[154] Biroq, hatto rivojlangan mamlakatlardagi aholi punktlari ham nosog'lom ifloslanish darajasiga erishmoqda, bunga Los-Anjeles va Rim misol bo'la oladi.[155] 2002 va 2011-yillar oralig'ida Pekinda o'pka saratoni bilan kasallanish ikki baravarga oshgan. Chekish Xitoyda o'pka saratonining asosiy sababi bo'lib qolsa-da, chekuvchilar soni kamayib, o'pka saratoni darajasi o'sib bormoqda.[156]

[157]
Dunyoning eng ifloslangan shaharlari 2020 2020 2019
Xotan, Xitoy 110.2 110.1
G'oziobod, Hindiston 106.6 110.2
Bulandshahr, Hindiston 98.4 89.4
Bisrah Jalolpur, Hindiston 96,0 -
Bhiwadi, Hindiston 95.5 83.4

Tehron 2022-yil 24-mayda dunyoning eng iflos shahri deb e’lon qilindi.[158]

Prognozlar

Prognozlarga ko'ra, 2030-yilga borib dunyoni ifloslantiruvchi chiqindilarning yarmi Afrika tomonidan ishlab chiqarilishi mumkin.[159] Bunday natijaga potentsial hissa qo'shadigan omillar orasida yonish faoliyatining ko'payishi (masalan, ochiq chiqindilarni yoqish), transport, qishloq-oziq-ovqat va kimyo sanoati, Sahroi Kabirdagi qum changlari va aholining umumiy o'sishi kiradi.

Iqtisodiy hamkorlik va taraqqiyot tashkiloti (inglizcha: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)) ma'lumotlariga ko'ra, 2050-yilga kelib tashqi havoning ifloslanishi butun dunyo bo'ylab ekologik o'limning asosiy sababiga aylanadi.[160]  

Manbalar

Qo'shimcha adabiyotlar

 

  • Brimblecombe, Peter. The Big Smoke: A History of Air Pollution in London Since Medieval Times (Methuen, 1987)
  • Brimblecombe, Peter. "History of air pollution." in Composition, Chemistry and Climate of the Atmosphere (Van Nostrand Reinhold (1995): 1–18
  • Brimblecombe, Peter; Makra, László (2005). "Selections from the history of environmental pollution, with special attention to air pollution. Part 2*: From medieval times to the 19th century". International Journal of Environment and Pollution 23 (4): 351–67. doi:10.1504/ijep.2005.007599. 
  • Cherni, Judith A. Economic Growth versus the Environment: The Politics of Wealth, Health and Air Pollution (2002) online
  • Corton, Christine L. London Fog: The Biography (2015)
  • Currie, Donya. "WHO: Air Pollution a Continuing Health Threat in World's Cities," The Nation's Health (February 2012) 42#1 online
  • Dewey, Scott Hamilton. Don't Breathe the Air: Air Pollution and US Environmental Politics, 1945–1970 (Texas A & M University Press, 2000)
  • Gonzalez, George A. The politics of air pollution: Urban growth, ecological modernization, and symbolic inclusion (SUNY Press, 2012)
  • Grinder, Robert Dale (1978). "From Insurgency to Efficiency: The Smoke Abatement Campaign in Pittsburgh before World War I.". Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine 61 (3): 187–202. 
  • Grinder, Robert Dale. "The Battle for Clean Air: The Smoke Problem in Post-Civil War America" in Martin V. Melosi, ed., Pollution & Reform in American Cities, 1870–1930 (1980), pp. 83–103.
  • Mingle, Jonathan, "Our Lethal Air" [review of Gary Fuller, The Invisible Killer...; Beth Gardiner, Choked...; Tim Smedley, Clearing the Air...; U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter (External Review Draft, 2018); and Chartered Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee, Letter to EPA Administrator on the EPA's Integrated Science Assessment for Particulate Matter, 11 April 2019], The New York Review of Books, vol. LXVI, no. 14 (26 September 2019), pp. 64–66, 68. "Today, 91 percent of people worldwide live in areas where air pollution levels exceed the World Health Organization's recommended limits. ... [T]here is no safe level of exposure to fine particulate matter. ... Most of these fine particles are a by-product of ... burning ... coal, gasoline, diesel, wood, trash ... These particles can get past the defenses of our upper airways to penetrate deep into our lungs and reach the alveoli ... From there, they cross into the bloodstream and spread throughout the body. They can travel through the nose, up the olfactory nerve, and lodge ... in the brain. They can form deposits on the lining of arteries, constricting blood vessels and raising the likelihood of ... strokes and heart attacks. [T]hey exacerbate respiratory illnesses like asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ... There's ... evidence linking air pollution exposure to an increased risk of Alzheimer's and other forms of dementia." (p. 64.)
  • Mosley, Stephen. The chimney of the world: a history of smoke pollution in Victorian and Edwardian Manchester. Routledge, 2013.
  • Schreurs, Miranda A. Environmental Politics in Japan, Germany, and the United States (Cambridge University Press, 2002) online
  • Thorsheim, Peter. Inventing Pollution: Coal, Smoke, and Culture in Britain since 1800 (2009)

Havolalar

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  2. ↑ Manisalidis, Ioannis; Stavropoulou, Elisavet; Stavropoulos, Agathangelos; Bezirtzoglou, Eugenia (2020). "Environmental and Health Impacts of Air Pollution: A Review". Frontiers in Public Health 8: 14. doi:10.3389/fpubh.2020.00014. ISSN 2296-2565. PMID 32154200. PMC 7044178. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=7044178. 
  3. ↑ Dimitriou, Anastasia; Christidou, Vasilia (2011-09-26), Khallaf, Mohamed (muh.), „Causes and Consequences of Air Pollution and Environmental Injustice as Critical Issues for Science and Environmental Education“, The Impact of Air Pollution on Health, Economy, Environment and Agricultural Sources (inglizcha), InTech, doi:10.5772/17654, ISBN 978-953-307-528-0, qaraldi: 2022-05-31
  4. ↑ 4,0 4,1 „7 million premature deaths annually linked to air pollution“. WHO (2014-yil 25-mart). Qaraldi: 2014-yil 25-mart.
  5. ↑ Allen, J. L.; Klocke, C.; Morris-Schaffer, K.; Conrad, K.; Sobolewski, M.; Cory-Slechta, D. A. (June 2017). "Cognitive Effects of Air Pollution Exposures and Potential Mechanistic Underpinnings" (en). Current Environmental Health Reports 4 (2): 180–191. doi:10.1007/s40572-017-0134-3. PMID 28435996. PMC 5499513. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=5499513. 
  6. ↑ Newbury, Joanne B.; Stewart, Robert; Fisher, Helen L.; Beevers, Sean; Dajnak, David; Broadbent, Matthew; Pritchard, Megan; Shiode, Narushige et al. (2021). "Association between air pollution exposure and mental health service use among individuals with first presentations of psychotic and mood disorders: retrospective cohort study" (en). The British Journal of Psychiatry 219 (6): 678–685. 2021-08-19. doi:10.1192/bjp.2021.119. ISSN 0007-1250. PMID 35048872. PMC 8636613. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=8636613. 
  7. ↑ Ghosh, Rakesh; Causey, Kate; Burkart, Katrin; Wozniak, Sara; Cohen, Aaron; Brauer, Michael (28 September 2021). "Ambient and household PM2.5 pollution and adverse perinatal outcomes: A meta-regression and analysis of attributable global burden for 204 countries and territories" (en). PLOS Medicine 18 (9): e1003718. doi:10.1371/journal.pmed.1003718. ISSN 1549-1676. PMID 34582444. PMC 8478226. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=8478226. 
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  9. ↑ Lelieveld, J.; Klingmüller, K.; Pozzer, A.; Burnett, R. T.; Haines, A.; Ramanathan, V. (25 March 2019). "Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 116 (15): 7192–7197. doi:10.1073/pnas.1819989116. PMID 30910976. PMC 6462052. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=6462052. 
  10. ↑ „Fine Particulate Matter Map Shows Premature Mortality Due to Air Pollution - SpaceRef“. spaceref.com (2013-yil 19-sentyabr).
  11. ↑ Silva, Raquel A; West, J Jason; Zhang, Yuqiang; Anenberg, Susan C; Lamarque, Jean-François; Shindell, Drew T; Collins, William J; Dalsoren, Stig et al. (2013). "Global premature mortality due to anthropogenic outdoor air pollution and the contribution of past climate change". Environmental Research Letters 8 (3): 034005. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/8/3/034005. 
  12. ↑ 12,0 12,1 Lelieveld, Jos; Pozzer, Andrea; Pöschl, Ulrich; Fnais, Mohammed; Haines, Andy; Münzel, Thomas (1 September 2020). "Loss of life expectancy from air pollution compared to other risk factors: a worldwide perspective". Cardiovascular Research 116 (11): 1910–1917. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvaa025. ISSN 0008-6363. PMID 32123898. PMC 7449554. //www.pubmedcentral.nih.gov/articlerender.fcgi?tool=pmcentrez&artid=7449554.  Manba xatosi: Invalid <ref> tag; name "10.1093/cvr/cvaa025" defined multiple times with different content
  13. ↑ „Energy and Air Pollution“. Iea.org. 2019-yil 11-oktyabrda asl nusxadan arxivlangan. Qaraldi: 2019-yil 12-mart.
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  84. ↑ Acharya, Bishnu (2018-01-01), Basu, Prabir (muh.), „Chapter 10 - Cleaning of Product Gas of Gasification“, Biomass Gasification, Pyrolysis and Torrefaction (Third Edition) (inglizcha), Academic Press: 373–391, ISBN 978-0-12-812992-0, qaraldi: 2022-06-07
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