Gender kamsitish sahifasining manbasini koʻrish

[[Fayl:Suffragette_arrest,_London,_1914.jpg|link=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Suffragette_arrest%2C_London%2C_1914.jpg/220px-Suffragette_arrest%2C_London%2C_1914.jpg|alt=A woman under arrrest walking between two policemen|thumb| Suffraget tashkilotlari ayollarning saylov huquqi uchun kurashganlarni olib ketmoqda.]]
'''Gender kamsitish yoki seksizm''' — maʼlum bir jins vakiliga qaratilgan [[Andisha|notoʻgʻri fikr]] yoki [[Diskriminatsiya|kamsitish]]. Jinsiy kamsitish har kimga taʼsir qilishi mumkin, lekin bu birinchi navbatda [[Ayol|ayollar]] va qizlarga koʻproq taʼsir oʻtkazadi<ref name="Sexism">There is a clear and broad consensus among academic scholars in multiple fields that sexism refers primarily to discrimination against women, and primarily affects women. See, for example:
</ref>. Bu stereotiplar va gender rollari bilan bogʻlangan<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|last=Matsumoto|first=David|title=The Handbook of Culture and Psychology|url=https://archive.org/details/handbookofcultur0000unse_c2w7|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-19-513181-9|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookofcultur0000unse_c2w7/page/197 197]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Nakdimen|first1=K. A.|title=The Physiognomic Basis of Sexual Stereotyping|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-psychiatry_1984-04_141_4/page/499|journal=[[American Journal of Psychiatry]]|year=1984|volume=141|issue=4|pages=499–503|doi=10.1176/ajp.141.4.499|pmid=6703126}}</ref> va bir jins yoki jinsning boshqasidan ustun ekanligiga ishonishni oʻz ichiga olishi mumkin. Haddan tashqari jinsiy behurmatlik jinsiy zoʻravonlik, zoʻrlash va jinsiy tajovuzning boshqa shakllarini rivojlantirishi mumkin<ref>Forcible Rape Institutionalized Sexism in the Criminal Justice System| Gerald D. Robin Division of Criminal Justice, [[University of New Haven]]</ref>. '''Gender kamsitish''' seksizmni oʻz ichiga oladi. Bu atama odamlarga nisbatan ularning [[Gender identifikatori|jins identifikatori]]<ref name="Macklem">{{Kitob manbasi|last=Macklem|first=Tony|year=2003|title=Beyond Comparison: Sex and Discrimination|url=https://archive.org/details/beyondcomparison0000mack|location=New York|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|isbn=978-0-521-82682-2}}</ref> yoki ularning jinsi farqlari asosida kamsitish sifatida aniqlanadi<ref name="Lenhart">{{Kitob manbasi|title=Clinical Aspects of Sexual Harassment and Gender Discrimination: Psychological Consequences and Treatment Interventions|last=Sharyn Ann Lenhart|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2004|isbn=978-1135941314|page=6|accessdate=April 20, 2018|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Rt2SAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA6|quote=Gender or Sex Discrimination: This term refers to the types of gender bias that have a negative impact. The term has legal, as well as theoretical and psychological, definitions. Psychological consequences can be more readily inferred from the latter, but both definitions are of significance. Theoretically, gender discrimination has been described as (1) the unequal rewards that men and women receive in the workplace or academic environment because of their gender or sex difference (DiThomaso, 1989); (2) a process occurring in work or educational settings in which an individual is overtly or covertly limited access to an opportunity or a resource because of a sex or is given the opportunity or the resource reluctantly and may face harassment for picking it (Roeske & Pleck, 1983); or (3) both.}}</ref>. Gender kamsitishning, ayniqsa, ish joyidagi tengsizlik yoʻnalishi koʻproq uchraydi<ref name="Lenhart" />. Bu hududdagi ijtimoiy yoki madaniy urf-odatlar va meʼyorlardan kelib chiqishi mumkin<ref>{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Macfarlane|ism=Christina|sana=September 12, 2019|sarlavha=FIFA must act after death of Iran's 'Blue Girl,' says activist|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/12/football/iran-blue-girl-sahar-khodayari-spt-intl/index.html|kirish sanasi=June 20, 2020|ish=edition.cnn.com}}</ref>.

== Etimologiyasi va taʼriflar ==
Fred R. Shapironing soʻzlariga koʻra, „seksizm“ atamasi katta ehtimol bilan 1965-yil 18-noyabrda Pauline M. Leet tomonidan Franklin va Marshall kollejida „Talabalar-fakultet forumi“ paytida kiritilgan<ref name="wordpress2007">{{Veb manbasi|url=http://finallyfeminism101.wordpress.com/2007/10/19/feminism-friday-the-origins-of-the-word-sexism/|sarlavha=Feminism Friday: The origins of the word "sexism"|ish=Finallyfeminism101.wordpress.com|sana=October 19, 2007|kirish sanasi=July 20, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Kitob manbasi|last=Siegel|first=Daniel J.|title=The Wise Legacy: How One Professor Transformed the Nation|date=February 16, 2015|publisher=CreateSpace|isbn=9781507625590|page=54|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hjbGBgAAQBAJ|accessdate=12 September 2015}}</ref>.  Xususan, jinsiy kamsitish soʻzi Leetning „Ayollar va Bakalavrlar“ forumidagi nutqida uchraydi va u bunga irqchilik bilan solishtirish orqali aniqlik kiritadi. Qisman (sahifada)&nbsp; "Munozara qilganingizda&nbsp;… kam ayollar yaxshi sheʼr yozganligi sababli, bu ularning butunlay chetlanishini oqlaydi, siz irqchi pozitsiyasiga oʻxshash pozitsiyani egallaysiz — men sizni bu holatda „seksist“ deb atashim mumkin.&nbsp;. . . Irqchi ham, seksist ham xuddi sodir boʻlgan hamma narsa hech qachon sodir boʻlmagandek harakat qiladi va ikkalasi ham har ikkala holatda ahamiyatsiz boʻlgan omillarga murojaat qilib, kimningdir qadr-qimmati toʻgʻrisida qaror qabul qiladi va xulosa chiqaradi"<ref name="wordpress2007" />.

Shuningdek, Shapironing soʻzlariga koʻra, birinchi marta „seksizm“ atamasi bosma nashrlarda Karolin Birdning 1968-yil 15-noyabrda „On Being Born Female''“'' jurnalida chop etilgan „Ayol boʻlib tugʻilish toʻgʻrisida“ maqolasida paydo boʻlgan<ref name="wordpress2007"/>. Bu nutqida u qisman shunday dedi: „Xorijda biz koʻp jihatdan seksist mamlakat ekanligimiz eʼtirof etiladi. Jinsiy kamchilik muhim boʻlmaganda, jinsiy kamsitish odamlarni jinsiga qarab baholaydi. Seksizm irqchilik bilan qofiyalash uchun moʻljallangan“<ref name="wordpress2007" />.

Seksizmni bir jinsning boshqasidan ustun ekanligiga ishonishga asoslangan [[mafkura]] sifatida aytish mumkin<ref name="Schaefer">{{Kitob manbasi|title=Sociology: A Brief Introduction|url=https://archive.org/details/studyguidetoacco0000scha|last=Schaefer|first=Richard T.|date=2009|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=9780073404264|edition=8th|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/studyguidetoacco0000scha/page/274 274]–275|oclc=243941681}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Kitob manbasi|title=Sociology in modules|last=T.|first=Schaefer, Richard|date=2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill|isbn=9780078026775|location=New York, NY|pages=525|oclc=663953971}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Kitob manbasi|title=Sociology|last=J.|first=Macionis, John|date=2010|publisher=[[Pearson Education]]|isbn=9780205749898|edition=13th|location=Upper Saddle River, N.J.|pages=330|oclc=468109511}}</ref>. Bu genderga asoslangan kamsitish, notoʻgʻri qarash yoki stereotiplar boʻlib, koʻpincha ayollar va qizlarga nisbatan ifodalanadi<ref name="Sexism">There is a clear and broad consensus among academic scholars in multiple fields that sexism refers primarily to discrimination against women, and primarily affects women. See, for example:
</ref>.

[[Sotsiologiya]] seksizmni individual va institutsional darajada namoyon boʻlishini koʻrib chiqdi<ref name="Schaefer"/>. Richard Sheferning soʻzlariga koʻra, seksizm barcha asosiy ijtimoiy institutlar tomonidan foydalaniladi<ref name="Schaefer" />. Sotsiologlar [[irqchilik]] kabi boshqa mafkuraviy zulm tizimlari oʻrtasidagi oʻxshashliklarni tasvirlaydilar, bu ham individual, ham institutsional darajada ishlaydi<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|title=Sociology : the core|url=https://archive.org/details/sociologycore0009edhugh|last=D.)|first=Hughes, Michael (Michael|date=2009|publisher=McGraw Hill/Higher Education|others=Kroehler, Carolyn J.|isbn=9780073404257|edition=9th|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/sociologycore0009edhugh/page/247 247]|oclc=276998849}}</ref>. Ilk ayol sotsiologlar Sharlotta Perkins Gilman, [[Ida B. Uells|Ida B. Wells]] va Garriet Martineau [[gender tengsizligi]] tizimlarini tasvirlab berdilar, lekin keyinchalik paydo boʻlgan ''seksizm'' atamasini ishlatmadilar. Funksionalistik paradigmani qabul qilgan sotsiologlar, masalan Talkott Parsons gender tengsizligini genderning dimorfik modelining tabiiy natijasi deb tushuntirdi<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|title=SOC 2018|last=Witt|first=Jon|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education|year=2017|isbn=978-1259702723|edition=5th|location=New York|pages=301|oclc=968304061}}</ref>.

[[Psixolog|Psixologlar]] Meri Krouford va Roda Unger seksizmni „ayollarga bir guruh sifatida salbiy munosabat va qadriyatlarni“ oʻz ichiga olgan shaxslar tomonidan qabul qilingan notoʻgʻri qarashlar deb taʼriflaydilar<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|title=Women and gender : a feminist psychology|url=https://archive.org/details/womengenderfemin0000craw|last=E.)|first=Crawford, Mary (Mary|date=2004|publisher=McGraw-Hill|others=Unger, Rhoda Kesler.|isbn=978-0072821079|edition=4th|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/womengenderfemin0000craw/page/9 9]|oclc=52706293}}</ref>. Piter Glik va Syuzan Fiske ayollar haqidagi stereotiplar qanday qilib ijobiy va salbiy boʻlishi mumkinligini va odamlar oʻzlariga xos boʻlgan stereotiplarni dushman seksizm yoki xayrixoh seksizmga boʻlishlarini tasvirlash uchun ''ambivalent seksizm'' atamasini ishlab chiqdilar<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|title=Women and gender : a feminist psychology|url=https://archive.org/details/womengenderfemin0000craw|last=E.)|first=Crawford, Mary (Mary|date=2004|publisher=McGraw-Hill|others=Unger, Rhoda Kesler.|isbn=978-0072821079|edition=4th|location=Boston|pages=[https://archive.org/details/womengenderfemin0000craw/page/59 59]–60|oclc=52706293}}</ref>.

Feminist muallif Bell Hooks seksizmni ayollar uchun noqulayliklarga olib keladigan zulm tizimi sifatida belgilaydi<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|title=Feminist theory : from margin to center|last=Hooks, Bell|date=2000|publisher=[[Pluto Press|Pluto]]|isbn=978-0745316642|edition=2nd|location=London|pages=48|oclc=45502856}}</ref>. Feminist faylasuf Merilin Fray seksizmni erkak ustunligi, erkak shovinizmi va misoginiyaning „munosabati-kontseptual-kognitiv-orientatsion kompleksi“ sifatida baho beradi<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|title=The Politics of Reality : Essays in Feminist Theory|last=Marilyn.|first=Frye|publisher=Crossing Press|year=1983|isbn=978-0895940995|edition=First|location=Trumansburg, New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/politicsofrealit00frye/page/41 41]|oclc=9323470|url=https://archive.org/details/politicsofrealit00frye/page/41}}</ref>.

[[Falsafa|Faylasuf]] Kate Manne seksizmni [[Patriarxat|patriarxal tartibning]] bir tarmogʻi sifatida belgilaydi. Uning taʼrifida seksizm patriarxal meʼyorlarni ratsionalizatsiya qiladi va oqlaydi, misoginiyadan farqli oʻlaroq, patriarxal meʼyorlarni tartibga soluvchi va amalga oshiradigan tarmoq. Mannening taʼkidlashicha, jinsiy kamsitish koʻpincha patriarxal ijtimoiy tuzilmalarni tabiiy, yaxshi yoki muqarrar qilib koʻrsatishga harakat qiladi, shuning uchun ularga qarshilik koʻrsatish uchun hech qanday sabab yoʻqdek tuyuladi<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|last=Manne|first=Kate|authorlink=Kate Manne|date=2019|title=Down Girl: The Logic of Misogyny|location=Ithaca, New York|publisher=Oxford University Press|pages=78–79|isbn=9780190604981}}</ref>.

== Tarixi ==

=== Qadimgi dunyo ===
[[Fayl:A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg|link=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg/220px-A_Hindoo_Widow_Burning_Herself_with_the_Corpse_of_her_Husband.jpg|alt=Engraving of a woman preparing to self-immolate with her husband’s corpse|thumb| [[Sati]] yoki bevalar tomonidan oʻzini-oʻzi yoqib yuborish XIX asr boshlarigacha hind jamiyatida keng tarqalgan edi.]]
Qadimgi Misrda ayollarning maqomi otalari yoki erlariga bogʻliq boʻlgan, lekin ular mulkiy huquqlarga ega boʻlib, sudda daʼvogar sifatida qatnashishlari mumkin edi<ref name="Silverman">{{Kitob manbasi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x7p_QMIjESwC&pg=PA80|title=Ancient Egypt|last=David P. Silverman|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2003|isbn=978-0195219524|pages=80–84|accessdate=March 2, 2015}}</ref>. Anglo-sakson davridagi ayollar odatda erkaklarga teng maqomga ega edilar<ref name="Lehmberg">{{Kitob manbasi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FXlTAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA35|title=A History of the Peoples of the British Isles: From Prehistoric Times to 1688|last=Stanford Lehmberg|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2013|isbn=978-1134415281|page=35|accessdate=March 2, 2015}}</ref>. Biroq, feodal jamiyatga qadar boʻlgan koʻplab jamiyatlar ayollarga bugungi ayollardan koʻra yuqoriroq mavqega ega boʻlgani haqidagi gʻoyani tasdiqlovchi dalillar yetishmaydi<ref name="Lockard">{{Kitob manbasi|last=Craig Lockard|title=Societies, Networks, and Transitions: A Global History|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|isbn=978-1305177079|year=2014|pages=88–89|accessdate=March 2, 2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FLg8AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA88}}</ref><ref>{{Kitob manbasi|last=Eller|first=Cynthia|year=2000|title=The Myth of Matriarchal Prehistory|url=https://archive.org/details/mythofmatriarcha0000elle|location=Boston|publisher=[[Beacon Press]]|isbn=978-0-8070-6793-2}}</ref>. Qishloq xoʻjaligi va oʻtroq madaniyatlar qabul qilingandan soʻng, bir jins boshqasidan past degan tushuncha paydo boʻldi; koʻpincha bu ayollar va qizlarga qaratilgan<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|title=A Brief History of the World Course No. 8080 [Audio CD]|last=Peter N. Stearns (Narrator)|publisher=The Teaching Company}}</ref>. Qadimgi dunyoda ayollarga nisbatan tengsiz munosabatda boʻlgan holatlarga ayollarning siyosiy jarayonda ishtirok etishiga toʻsqinlik qiluvchi yozma qonunlar misol boʻla oladi. Qadimgi Rimda ayollar ovoz berish yoki [[Magistratlar|siyosiy lavozimni]] egallashlari mumkin emas edi<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|first=Bruce W.|last=Frier|title=A Casebook on Roman Family Law|publisher=Oxford University Press|others=American Philological Association|year=2004|pages=31–32, 457, ''et passim''|isbn=978-0-19-516185-4}}</ref>. Yana bir misol, bolalarga ayollarning kamsitilishini singdiruvchi ilmiy matnlar. Qadimgi Xitoydagi ayollarga ayol bolaligida otasiga, nikohda eriga, bevaligida o‘g‘liga bo‘ysunishi kerakligi haqidagi [[Konfutsiylik|Konfutsiy]] tamoyillari o‘rgatilgan<ref name="wu">{{Cite journal|title=周代男女角色定位及其对现代社会的影响|trans_title=Role orientation of men and women in the Zhou Dynasty and their effects on modern society|last=Wu 吴|first1=Xiaohua 晓华|language=zh|journal=Chang'An Daxue Xuebao (Shehui Kexue Ban)|date=2009|volume=11|issue=3|page=87}}</ref>.

=== Jodugar ovlari va sinovlari ===
[[Fayl:Malleus_maleficarum,_Köln_1520,_Titelseite.jpg|link=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg/260px-Malleus_maleficarum%2C_K%C3%B6ln_1520%2C_Titelseite.jpg|alt=Titlepage from the book Malleus Maleficarum|thumb| „Jodugarlarni va ularning bid’atlarini ikki qirrali qilich bilan yoʻq qiladigan jodugarlar bolgʻasi“. ''Malleus Malefikarumning'' yettinchi [[Kyoln]] nashrining sarlavha sahifasi. 1520. Sidney universiteti kutubxonasidan. ]]
Seksizm XV-XIII asrlarda jodugarlar sinovlarini kuchaytirgan paytlarga nisbatan turtki boʻlishi mumkin<ref>[[Sexism#Thu01|Thurston 2001]]. p. 01.</ref>. Ilk zamonaviy Yevropada va Shimoliy Amerikadagi Yevropa koloniyalarida jodugarlar xristian olamiga tahdid solayotgani haqida daʼvolar ilgari surildi. Bu ayollarning taʼqib qilinishida oʻsha davrdagi misoginiya rol oʻynadi<ref>Barstow, Anne Llewellyn (1994) ''Witchcraze: A New History of the European Witch Hunts'' San Francisco: Pandora.</ref><ref>[[Sexism#Thu01|Thurston 2001]]. pp. 42-45.</ref>.

Jodugar ovlari va sinovlarida katta rol oʻynagan Geynrix Kramerning „''Malleus Malefikarum''“ kitobida muallif ayollarning sehrgarlik bilan erkaklarga qaraganda koʻproq shugʻullanishini taʼkidlaydi va shunday yozadi:

: Ayolning yovuzligi uchun barcha yovuzlik ozdir&nbsp;. . . Doʻstlik dushmani, qochib boʻlmaydigan jazo, zaruriy yovuzlik, tabiiy vasvasa, orzu qilingan ofat, maishiy xavf, yoqimli ziyon, ochiq ranglar bilan boʻyalgan tabiatning yovuzligidan boshqa nima bor ayolda!<ref>Kramer and Sprenger. Malleus Maleficarum.</ref>

Jodugarlik (sehrgarlik, folbinlik) bir qancha mamlakatlarda, jumladan [[Saudiya Arabistoni|Saudiya Arabistonida]] ham noqonuniy hisoblanadi, mamlakatda bu jinoyat [[Oʻlim jazosi|oʻlim bilan jazolanadi]]. 2011-yilda Saudiyada „folbinlik va sehrgarlik“ uchun bir ayolning boshi judo qilingan<ref>{{Yangiliklar manbasi |date=December 14, 2011 |title=Saudi woman beheaded for 'witchcraft and sorcery' |work=[[CNN]].com |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/12/13/world/meast/saudi-arabia-beheading/}}</ref>. Folbinlikda ayblanib ayollarni oʻldirish dunyoning baʼzi qismlarida keng tarqalgan; masalan, [[Tanzaniya|Tanzaniyada]] har yili 500 ga yaqin keksa ayollar bunday ayblovlar ortidan oʻldiriladi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|muallif=World Health Organization|sarlavha=World Report on Violence Chapter 5 – Abuse of the elderly|url=https://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/violence/global_campaign/en/chap5.pdf|kirish sanasi=June 20, 2020|ish=who.int}}</ref>.

Ayollar jodugarlikda va keyinchalik zoʻravonlikda ayblansa, koʻpincha kamsitishning bir nechta shakllari oʻzaro taʼsir qiladi — masalan, jinsga asoslangan kamsitish va [[Kasta|kastaga]] asoslangan diskriminatsiya, Hindiston va Nepalda boʻlgani kabi nisbatan keng tarqalgan jinoyatlar sodir boʻladi<ref>{{Yangiliklar manbasi |last=Shrestha |first=Deepesh |date=February 15, 2010 |title=Witch-hunts of low-caste women in Nepal |work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/7241937/Witch-hunts-of-low-caste-women-in-Nepal.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=June 20, 2020 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/expat/expatnews/7241937/Witch-hunts-of-low-caste-women-in-Nepal.html |archive-date=January 11, 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Yangiliklar manbasi |last=Iaccino |first=Ludovica |date=July 22, 2014 |title=Witch Hunting in India: Poor, Low Caste and Widows Main Targets |work=International Business Times |url=http://www.ibtimes.co.uk/witch-hunting-india-poor-low-caste-widows-main-targets-1457809 |access-date=June 20, 2020}}</ref>.

=== Nikohni qoplash va boshqa qoidalar ===
[[Fayl:Say_no_to_dowry.jpg|link=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Say_no_to_dowry.jpg/170px-Say_no_to_dowry.jpg|alt=An Indian Anti-dowry poster headed Say No To Dowry|thumb| [[Bangalor|Hindistonning Bangalor shahridagi]] [[Sep|mahrga qarshi]] plakat. Xalqaro Amnistiya tashkilotiga koʻra, „[T]mahr bilan bogʻliq zoʻravonlikning davom etayotgan haqiqati ayollarga mulk sifatida qaralganda nima sodir boʻlishi mumkinligiga misoldir“<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/women-s-rights/violence-against-women/violence-against-women-information|sarlavha=Violence Against Women Information}}</ref>. ]]
XX asrgacha AQSh va Angliya qonunchiligida „nikoh boʻyicha er va xotin bir shaxs boʻlib, nikoh davomida ayolning borligʻi yoki qonuniy mavjudligi toʻxtatib qoʻyiladigan“ yashirin tizim hukm surgan<ref name="blackstone">{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Blackstone, William|muallifhavola=William Blackstone|sarlavha=Extracts from William Blackstone's Commentaries on the Laws of England 1765–1769|url=http://www.mdx.ac.uk/WWW/STUDY/xblack.htm|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081005032946/http://www.mdx.ac.uk/WWW/STUDY/xblack.htm|arxivsana=5 October 2008|kirish sanasi=15 March 2015}}</ref>. AQSh ayollari 1875-yilgacha qonuniy ravishda „shaxslar“ sifatida belgilanmagan<ref name="legacy98.org">{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.legacy98.org/timeline.html|sarlavha=Legacy '98: Detailed Timeline|nashriyot=Legacy98.org|sana=2001-09-19|kirish sanasi=November 20, 2010|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100702081142/https://www.legacy98.org/timeline.html|arxivsana=July 2, 2010}}</ref>. Nikoh hokimiyati deb ataladigan shunga oʻxshash huquqiy taʼlimot Rim Gollandiya qonunchiligida mavjud edi (va hozirgi [[Esvatini|Esvatinida]] qisman amal qiladi).

Turmushga chiqqan ayollarning huquqlarini cheklash bir necha oʻn yillar oldin Gʻarb mamlakatlarida keng tarqalgan edi: masalan, fransuzlarning turmush qurgan ayollari 1965-yilda erining ruxsatisiz ishlash huquqini qoʻlga kiritdilar<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Allwood|first1=Gill|year=1999|title=Women in France|url=http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf|journal=Modern and Contemporary France|volume=7|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304092212/http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals/explore/cmcf-vsi-women-in-france.pdf|archivedate=March 4, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.parisvoice.com/-archives-97-86/282-frances-leading-women-show-the-way|sarlavha=France's leading women show the way|nashriyot=Parisvoice.com|kirish sanasi=July 20, 2013|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130728175142/http://www.parisvoice.com/-archives-97-86/282-frances-leading-women-show-the-way|arxivsana=July 28, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.womeninworldhistory.com/TWR-07.html|sarlavha=Lesson – The French Civil Code (Napoleonic Code) – Teaching Women's Rights From Past to Present|ish=Womeninworldhistory.com|kirish sanasi=July 20, 2013}}</ref> va Gʻarbiy Germaniyada ayollar bunga 1977-yilda erishdilar<ref>{{Yangiliklar manbasi |last=Benhold |first=K. |date=2010 |title=20 years after fall of wall, women of former East Germany thrive |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/10/06/world/europe/06iht-letter.html |access-date=April 17, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Trzcinski|first1=E.|last2=Holst|first2=E.|year=2012|title=Gender Differences in Subjective Well-Being In and Out of Management Positions|journal=[[Social Indicators Research]]|volume=107|issue=3|pages=449–463|doi=10.1007/s11205-011-9857-y}}</ref>. [[Francisco Franco|Franko]] davrida, Ispaniyada turmushga chiqqan ayol ishga joylashish, mulkka egalik qilish va uydan uzoqda sayohat qilish uchun erining roziligi (''permiso marital'' deb ataladi) talab qilingan. 1975-yilda ''nikoh ruxsati'' bekor qilindi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://countrystudies.us/spain/43.htm|sarlavha=Spain – Social Values And Attitudes|nashriyot=Countrystudies.us|kirish sanasi=July 20, 2013}}</ref>. Avstraliyada 1983-yilgacha turmushga chiqqan ayolning pasport arizasiga eri ruxsat berishi kerak edi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=https://www.passports.gov.au/Web/passport_history.aspx|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060614171552/http://www.passports.gov.au/Web/passport_history.aspx|arxivsana=June 14, 2006|sarlavha=The History of Passports in Australia|sana=June 14, 2006}}</ref>.

Dunyoning turli burchaklarida ayollar nikoh orqali qonuniy huquqlarini yoʻqotishda davom etmoqda. Masalan, [[Yaman|Yamanning]] nikoh qoidalariga ko‘ra, xotin eriga itoat qilishi va uning ruxsatisiz uydan chiqmasligi kerak<ref>{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Amnesty International|sana=2009|sarlavha=Yemen's dark side: Discrimination and violence against women and girls|kirish sanasi=April 17, 2015|url=http://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/hrc/docs/ngos/Yemen%27s%20darkside-discrimination_Yemen_HRC101.pdf}}</ref>. [[Iroq|Iroqda]] qonun erlarga xotinlarini qonuniy ravishda „jazolash“ga ruxsat bergan<ref>{{Veb manbasi|sarlavha=The law states: "The punishment of a wife by her husband, the disciplining by parents and teachers of children under their authority [is permitted] within certain limits prescribed by law or by custom"|url=http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf|nashriyot=Law.case.edu|kirish sanasi=March 31, 2015|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021100954/http://law.case.edu/saddamtrial/documents/Iraqi_Penal_Code_1969.pdf|arxivsana=October 21, 2012}}</ref>. [[Kongo Demokratik Respublikasi|Kongo Demokratik Respublikasining]] Oila kodeksiga koʻra, er uy xoʻjaligi boshligʻi hisoblanadi; xotin eriga boʻysunishi uchun qarzdor; xotin qayerda yashashni xohlamasin, eri bilan birga yashashi kerak; xotinlar esa sudga ish qoʻzgʻatish yoki boshqa sud ishlarini qoʻzgʻatish uchun erining ruxsatiga ega boʻlishi kerak<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=https://www.hrw.org/reports/2002/drc/Congo0602-09.htm|sarlavha=The War Within the War|ish=Hrw.org|kirish sanasi=March 31, 2015}}</ref>.

Nikohda ayollarga nisbatan suiisteʼmollik va kamsitish amaliyotlari koʻpincha [[sep]], kelin narxi va mahr kabi moliyaviy toʻlovlardan kelib chiqadi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2012/12/unw-legislation-supplement-en%20pdf.pdf|sarlavha=Handbook for Legislation on Violence Against Women: Supplement to the "Harmful Practices" against Women|nashriyot=UN Women|sana=2012|kirish sanasi=April 25, 2015|arxivsana=June 10, 2015|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150610131259/http://www.unwomen.org/~/media/headquarters/attachments/sections/library/publications/2012/12/unw-legislation-supplement-en%20pdf.pdf}}</ref>. Bu bitimlar koʻpincha er tomonidan xotinni majburan nazorat qilishni qonuniylashtirish va unga oʻz ustidan hokimiyat berishni koʻrsatadi. Masalan , Shaxsiy maqom kodeksining (Tunis) 13-moddasida shunday deyilgan: „Er, mahrni toʻlamagan holda, ayolni nikohni toʻldirishga majburlamasligi kerak“<ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=4322925|title=The Tunisian Code of Personal Status (Majallat Al-Ahw Al Al-Shakhsiy Ah)|first1=George N.|last=Sfeir|date=1 January 1957|journal=[[Middle East Journal]]|volume=11|issue=3|pages=309–318}}</ref><ref>{{Veb manbasi|sarlavha=Code du Statut Personnel – Tunisie|url=https://www.jurisitetunisie.com/tunisie/codes/csp/Csp1015.htm|kirish sanasi=August 26, 2019|ish=www.jurisitetunisie.com|til=fr}}</ref> degani, agar mahr toʻlanadi, nikohda zoʻravonlikka ruxsat beriladi. Shu munosabat bilan, tanqidchilar [[Tunis|Tunisdagi]] ayollarning goʻyo yutuqlari va mintaqadagi ilgʻor mamlakat sifatidagi imidjini shubha ostiga qoʻyishdi va u yerda ayollarga nisbatan kamsitish juda kuchli ekanligini taʼkidladilar<ref>{{Veb manbasi|sana=August 13, 2013|sarlavha=7 raisons pour les hommes et les femmes de remettre en cause le CSP&nbsp;... ou pas|url=http://www.huffpostmaghreb.com/2013/08/13/raisons-hommes-femmes-csp_n_3747952.html|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150702190813/http://www.huffpostmaghreb.com/2013/08/13/raisons-hommes-femmes-csp_n_3747952.html|arxivsana=July 2, 2015|kirish sanasi=June 14, 2015|ish=[[Al Huffington Post]]|til=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Veb manbasi|sarlavha=Nouveaux progrès, mais il ne faut pas pour autant pavoiser|url=http://www.letemps.com.tn/article/83765/nouveaux-progr%C3%A8s-mais-il-ne-faut-pas-pour-autant-pavoiser|kirish sanasi=June 14, 2015|ish=[[Le Temps]]|til=fr|arxivsana=May 5, 2019|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505093933/http://www.letemps.com.tn/article/83765/nouveaux-progr%C3%A8s-mais-il-ne-faut-pas-pour-autant-pavoiser}}</ref><ref>{{Veb manbasi|muallif=FIDH|sarlavha=Les violences sexuelles en Tunisie: après le déni, un début de (...)|url=https://www.fidh.org/La-Federation-internationale-des-ligues-des-droits-de-l-homme/maghreb-moyen-orient/tunisie/15424-les-violences-sexuelles-en-tunisie-apres-le-deni-un-debut-de|kirish sanasi=June 14, 2015|ish=FIDH – Worldwide Human Rights Movement|til=fr}}</ref>.

Qiynoqlarga qarshi Butunjahon tashkiloti (OMCT) „mustaqillik va zoʻravon erni tark etish“ ayollarga nisbatan qoʻpol munosabatda boʻlishni toʻxtatishda hal qiluvchi ahamiyatga ega ekanligini tan oldi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meetdocs/2004_2009/documents/dv/droi_090121_9omct/DROI_090121_9OMCTen.pdf|sarlavha=Combating extrajudicial executions, enforced disappearances, torture and other cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment in the Philippines by addressing their economic, social and cultural root causes|kirish sanasi=November 18, 2019}}</ref>. Biroq, dunyoning baʼzi qismlarida, turmush qurgandan soʻng, ayollar zoʻravon erini tark etish imkoniyati juda kam: [[Nikohni bekor qilish|ajralish]] koʻplab holatlarda juda qiyin, chunki sudda nikohni bekor qilish uchun asosli isbot zarur. Masalan, [[Afgʻoniston|Afgʻonistonda]] oʻz uyini tark etgan xotin „qochib ketgani“ uchun qamoqqa tushish xavfi bor<ref>{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Human Rights Watch|sana=2012|sarlavha='I had to run away': The imprisonment of women and girls for 'moral crimes' in Afghanistan|kirish sanasi=April 17, 2015|url=https://www.hrw.org/sites/default/files/reports/afghanistan0312webwcover_0.pdf|ish=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref><ref>{{Yangiliklar manbasi |date=May 21, 2013 |title=More Afghan women jailed for 'moral crimes', says HRW—BBC News |work=[[BBC News]] |publisher=BBC.com |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-22614536 |access-date=March 31, 2015}}</ref>. Bundan tashqari, koʻplab sobiq Britaniya koloniyalari, [[Hindiston]] nikoh huquqlarini tiklash tushunchasini saqlab<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=https://indiankanoon.org/doc/1382895/|sarlavha=Smt. Saroj Rani vs Sudarshan Kumar Chadha on 8 August, 1984|nashriyot=Indiankanoon.org|kirish sanasi=March 31, 2015}}</ref>, xotin sud tomonidan eriga qaytishi mumkin; agar u buni qilmasa, u sudga hurmatsizlik sifatida ushlab turilishi mumkin<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|last=Sen|first=Samta|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gN1dEJuiZ0cC&q=india+if+a+woman+fails+to+return+to+her+husband+she+may+be+held+in+contempt+of+court&pg=PA205|title=Women and Labour in Late Colonial India: The Bengal Jute Industry|date=1999|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=205|isbn=9780521453639}}</ref><ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.manupatrafast.com/articles/PopOpenArticle.aspx?ID=797c51f7-0615-4fa8-b92e-7d7d24d03689&txtsearch=Subject:%20Family%20Law|sarlavha=Manupatra Articles|nashriyot=Manupatrafast.com|kirish sanasi=March 31, 2015|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402092830/http://www.manupatrafast.com/articles/PopOpenArticle.aspx?ID=797c51f7-0615-4fa8-b92e-7d7d24d03689&txtsearch=Subject:%20Family%20Law|arxivsana=2015-04-02}}</ref>. Boshqa muammolar kelinning narxini toʻlash bilan bogʻliq: agar xotini ketmoqchi boʻlsa, eri ayolning oilasiga toʻlagan kelin narxini qaytarishni talab qilishi mumkin. Ayolning oilasi koʻpincha uni toʻlay olmaydi yoki toʻlashni xohlamaydi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Equality Now|sana=2007|sarlavha=Protecting the girl child: Using the law to end child, early and forced marriage and related human rights violations|kirish sanasi=April 17, 2015|url=https://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf|qaralgan sana=2022-09-20|arxivsana=2014-03-29|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140329215211/https://www.equalitynow.org/sites/default/files/Protecting_the_Girl_Child.pdf}}</ref><ref>Lelieveld, M. (2011) Child protection in the Somali region of Ethiopia. A report for the Bridges project Piloting the delivery of quality education services in the developing regional states of Ethiopia. Retrieved April 17, 2015 from {{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/FINALChild_Protection_in_the_Somali_Region_30511.pdf|sarlavha=Archived copy|kirish sanasi=March 11, 2015|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924095119/http://www.savethechildren.org.uk/sites/default/files/docs/FINALChild_Protection_in_the_Somali_Region_30511.pdf|arxivsana=September 24, 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Kitob manbasi|last=Stange, Mary Zeiss, and Carol K. Oyster, Jane E. Sloan|title=Encyclopedia of Women in Today's World, Volume 1|year=2011|publisher=Sage|isbn=9781412976855|page=496}}</ref>.

Nikoh bilan bogʻliq qonunlar, qoidalar va anʼanalar dunyoning koʻp joylarida ayollarga nisbatan kamsitishda davom etmoqda va ayollarga nisbatan yomon munosabatda boʻlishga, xususan jinsiy zoʻravonlik va jinsiy hayotga nisbatan oʻz taqdirini oʻzi belgilashga hissa qoʻshishda davom etmoqda. Bu sabablar orqali [[Ayollar huquqlari|ayollar huquqlarining]] buzilishi tan olinmoqda. 2012-yilda oʻsha paytdagi Inson huquqlari boʻyicha Oliy komissar Navi Pillay shunday degan edi:<blockquote>Ayollarga koʻpincha mulk sifatida qaraladi, ular turmush, odam savdosiga, jinsiy qullikka sotiladi. Ayollarga nisbatan zoʻravonlik koʻpincha jinsiy zoʻravonlik shaklida boʻladi. Bunday zoʻravonlik qurbonlari koʻpincha fohishalikda ayblanadi va oʻz taqdiri uchun javobgar boʻladi. Bepusht ayollar esa erlar, oilalar va jamoalar tomonidan rad etiladi. .{{Nbsp}}. . . Ayollarning oʻz tanalarida toʻliq avtonomiyaga ega boʻlishini taʼminlash ayollar va erkaklar oʻrtasidagi tub tenglikka erishish yoʻlidagi birinchi muhim qadamdir. Qachon, qanday va kim bilan jinsiy sherikni tanlashi, qachon, qanday va kim bilan farzand koʻrishni tanlashi kabi shaxsiy muammolar — munosib hayot kechirishning omili hisoblanadi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Pillay|ism=Navi|muallifhavola=Navi Pillay|sana=2012|sarlavha=Valuing women as autonomous beings: Women's sexual reproductive health rights|ish=United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commissioner|kirish sanasi=April 18, 2015|url=http://www.chr.up.ac.za/images/files/news/news_2012/Navi%20Pillay%20Lecture%2015%20May%202012.pdf|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170313210726/http://www.chr.up.ac.za/images/files/news/news_2012/Navi%20Pillay%20Lecture%2015%20May%202012.pdf|arxivsana=March 13, 2017}}</ref>. </blockquote>

=== Saylov huquqi va siyosat ===
[[Fayl:Annie_Kenney_and_Christabel_Pankhurst.jpg|link=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Annie_Kenney_and_Christabel_Pankhurst.jpg/170px-Annie_Kenney_and_Christabel_Pankhurst.jpg|alt=Two woman carry a sign reading „Votes for Women“.|thumb| [[Kenni, Enno hayoti|Enni Kenni]] va Kristabel Pankhurst]]
Gender siyosiy sohada ayollarni kamsitish vositasi sifatida ishlatilgan. Yangi Zelandiya ayollarga ovoz berish huquqini bergan birinchi davlat boʻlgan. 1893-yilga qadar [[Ayollarning saylov huquqi|ayollarning saylov huquqiga]] erishilmagan edi. Saudiya Arabistoni 2015-yil avgust oyi holatiga koʻra, 2011-yilda ayollarga ovoz berish huquqini kengaytirgan eng oxirgi davlatdir<ref>{{Veb manbasi|sarlavha=Timeline of Women's Suffrage Granted, by Country|url=https://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0931343.html|nashriyot=Infoplease|kirish sanasi=December 1, 2013}}</ref>. Baʼzi Gʻarb davlatlari ham ayollarga ovoz berish huquqiga nisbatan yaqinda ruxsat bergan. [[Shveysariya|Shvetsariya]] ayollari 1971-yilda federal saylovlarda ovoz berish huquqini qoʻlga kiritdilar<ref name="switzerland-chronology">{{Veb manbasi|url=http://history-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch/chronology-womens-right-vote-switzerland.html|sarlavha=The Long Way to Women's Right to Vote in Switzerland: a Chronology|nashriyot=History-switzerland.geschichte-schweiz.ch|kirish sanasi=August 1, 2011}}</ref>. Appenzell Innerrhoden 1991-yilda Shvetsariya Federal Oliy sudi tomonidan ayollarga mahalliy masalalar boʻyicha ovoz berish huquqini bergan oxirgi kanton boʻldi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2003/WOM1373.doc.htm|sarlavha=United Nations press release of a meeting of the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), issued on January 14, 2003|nashriyot=Un.org|kirish sanasi=September 2, 2011}}</ref>. Fransuz ayollariga 1944-yilda ovoz berish huquqi berilgan<ref>{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Jean-Pierre Maury|sarlavha=Ordonnance du 21 avril 1944 relative à l'organisation des pouvoirs publics en France après la Libération|url=http://mjp.univ-perp.fr/france/co1944-2.htm|kirish sanasi=January 8, 2011|nashriyot=Mjp.univ-perp.fr|til=fr}}</ref><ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.assemblee-nationale.fr/histoire/femmes/citoyennete_politique_de-Gaulle.asp|sarlavha=La citoyenneté politique des femmes—La décision du Général de Gaulle|muallif=Assemblée nationale|kirish sanasi=December 19, 2007|til=fr}}</ref>. Gretsiyada ayollar saylov huquqini 1952-yilda qo‘lga kiritdilar<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.db-decision.de/CoRe/Greece.htm|sarlavha=European Database: Women in Decision-making – y Country Report Greece|muallif=Kerstin Teske: teske@fczb.de|ish=db-decision.de|kirish sanasi=June 11, 2014|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131109110102/http://www.db-decision.de/CoRe/Greece.htm|arxivsana=November 9, 2013}}</ref>. [[Lixtenshteyn|Lixtenshteynda]] ayollar saylov huquqini 1984-yilgi referendum orqali qoʻlga kiritdilar<ref>{{Yangiliklar manbasi |date=March 31, 2011 |title=BBC News—Timeline: Liechtenstein |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/country_profiles/1066106.stm |access-date=14 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1984/07/02/world/around-the-world-liechtenstein-women-win-right-to-vote.html|sarlavha=Liechtenstein Women Win Right to Vote|sana=July 2, 1984|ish=The New York Times}}</ref>.

Bugungi kunda deyarli har bir ayol ovoz berish huquqiga ega boʻlsa-da, siyosatda ayollar uchun hali oldinga siljishlar mavjud. Tadqiqotlar shuni koʻrsatdiki, bir qancha demokratik davlatlar, jumladan Avstraliya, Kanada va Qoʻshma Shtatlarda ayollar hali ham matbuotda gender stereotiplari yordamida namoyish etilmoqda<ref name="KittilsonFridkin2008">{{Cite journal|last=Kittilson|first1=Miki Caul|last2=Fridkin|first2=Kim|title=Gender, Candidate Portrayals and Election Campaigns: A Comparative Perspective|journal=[[Politics & Gender]]|volume=4|issue=3|year=2008|issn=1743-923X|doi=10.1017/S1743923X08000330}}</ref>. Koʻplab mualliflar ommaviy axborot vositalaridagi gender farqlari 1980-yillardagiga qaraganda bugungi kunda kamroq ekanligini koʻrsatdi, ammo hali ham mavjud. Ayrim masalalar (masalan, taʼlim) ayol nomzodlar bilan, boshqa masalalar (masalan, soliqlar) esa erkak nomzodlar bilan bogʻliq boʻlishi mumkin<ref name="KittilsonFridkin2008" />. Bundan tashqari, ayol nomzodlarning tashqi koʻrinishi va shaxsiyati kabi shaxsiy fazilatlariga koʻproq eʼtibor beriladi, chunki ayollar hissiy va qaram sifatida tasvirlangan<ref name="KittilsonFridkin2008" />.

Erkaklar va ayollar oʻrtasida qonun chiqaruvchi hokimiyatning keng tarqalgan nomutanosibligi mavjud. Qonun chiqaruvchi organlarda ayollar va erkaklar nisbati [[Birlashgan millatlar tashkiloti|Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining]] gender imkoniyatlarini kengaytirish chora-tadbirlarida va uning yangi timsoli Gender tengsizlik indeksida gender tengligi oʻlchovi sifatida ishlatiladi. Xitoy haqida gapirilsa, Lanyan Chen siyosatni ishlab chiqishda ayollardan koʻra erkaklar koʻproq posbon boʻlgani sababli, bu ayollar ehtiyojlarining toʻgʻri ifodalanmasligiga olib kelishi mumkinligini aytdi. Shu maʼnoda qonun ijodkorligidagi tengsizlik ham gender kamsitishini keltirib chiqaradi<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|last=Chen|first=Lanyan|title=The Gendered Reality of Migrant Workers in Globalizing China|date=2009|publisher=The [[University of Ottawa]]|location=Ottawa|isbn=978-0-7766-0709-2|pages=186–207}}</ref>.

==== Menyular ====
1980-yillarning boshlariga qadar baʼzi yuqori darajadagi restoranlarda ikkita [[menyu]] mavjud edi: erkaklar uchun narxlar koʻrsatilgan oddiy menyu va narxlar koʻrsatilmagan ayollar uchun ikkinchi menyu (u „ayollar menyusi“ deb nomlangan), shuning uchun ovqatlanuvchi ayol mahsulotlarning narxini bilmagan<ref name="Frost">{{Veb manbasi|url=https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/ladies-menus-no-prices-lawsuit|sarlavha=The Court Case That Killed the 'Ladies Menu'|muallif=Frost|ism=Natasha|sana=February 2, 2018|ish=www.atlasobscura.com|nashriyot=[[Atlas Obscura]]|kirish sanasi=February 23, 2019}}</ref>. 1980 yilda Ketlin Bick Gʻarbiy Gollivuddagi L’Orangerie-da kechki ovqatga erkak biznes sherigini olib ketdi. Unga narxlarisiz ayollar menyusi va uning mehmoniga narxlari koʻrsatilgan menyu berilgandan soʻng, Bick advokat Gloriya Allredni ayollar menyusi Kaliforniya fuqarolik huquqlari toʻgʻrisidagi qonunga zid boʻlgani sababli kamsitish boʻyicha sudga murojaat qilish uchun yolladi<ref name="Frost" />. Bickning taʼkidlashicha, ayollar menyusini narxlarisiz olish uni „xoʻrlangan va gʻazablangan“ his qilgan. Restoran egalari bu amaliyotni ayol kishi xonaga kirganida erkaklar o‘rnidan turishi kabi xushmuomalalik sifatida qilinganini aytib, himoya qildi. Daʼvo bekor qilingan boʻlsa ham, restoran oʻzining jinsga asoslangan menyu siyosatini tugatdi<ref name="Frost" />.

=== Vaqtga bogʻliq tendensiyalar ===


2021-yilda oʻtkazilgan tadqiqotda Amerika Qoʻshma Shtatlarida 2004-yildan 2018-yilgacha gender kamsitish darajasi oʻzgarganligi haqida kam boʻlsa-da dalillar topildi<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Archer|first1=Allison M N|last2=Kam|first2=Cindy D|date=2021|title=Modern Sexism in Modern Times Public Opinion in the #Metoo Era|url=https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfaa058|journal=Public Opinion Quarterly|volume=84|issue=4|pages=813–837|doi=10.1093/poq/nfaa058|issn=0033-362X}}</ref>.

== Gender stereotiplari ==
Gender stereotiplari ayollar va erkaklarning xususiyatlari va xulq-atvori haqida keng tarqalgan eʼtiqoddir<ref>Manstead, A. S. R.; Hewstone, Miles; et al. ''The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Social Psychology''. Oxford, UK; Cambridge, Mass., USA: Blackwell, 1999, 1995, pp. 256-57, {{ISBN|978-0-631-22774-8}}.</ref>. Empirik tadqiqotlar shuni koʻrsatdiki, erkaklar koʻproq ijtimoiy jihatdan qadrlanadi va bir qator faoliyatda ayollarga qaraganda koʻproq vakolatliroqdir<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Wagner|first1=David G.|last2=Berger|first2=Joseph|year=1997|title=Gender and Interpersonal Task Behaviors: Status Expectation Accounts|journal=[[Sociological Perspectives]]|volume=40|issue=1|pages=1–32|doi=10.2307/1389491|jstor=1389491}}</ref><ref>Williams, John E. and Deborah L. Best. ''Measuring Sex Stereotypes: A Multinational Study''. Newbury Park, CA: Sage, 1990, {{ISBN|978-0-8039-3815-1}}.</ref>. Dastin B. Toman va boshqalar (2008) „gender-matematik stereotipning boshqa tarkibiy qismlariga nisbatan qobiliyatning ijtimoiy-madaniy ahamiyati matematikaga intilayotgan ayollarga taʼsir qilishi mumkin“ deb taxmin qiladilar. Ayollarning matematika natijalarini ikki xil gender-matematik stereotip komponentlari, yaʼni matematika qobiliyati va matematikaga boʻlgan saʼy-harakatlarini taqqoslash boʻyicha tajriba orqali, Toman va boshqalar ayollarning matematik koʻrsatkichlariga salbiy qobiliyat stereotipi koʻproq taʼsir qilishini aniqladilar. Bu harakat komponenti emas, balki Qoʻshma Shtatlardagi ijtimoiy-madaniy eʼtiqodlar taʼsirida. Ushbu eksperiment va Qoʻshma Shtatlardagi sotsial-madaniy eʼtiqodlar natijasida, Toman va boshqalar odamlarning ilmiy natijalariga ijtimoiy-madaniy eʼtiqodlar taʼsirida boʻlgan gender-matematik stereotip komponenti taʼsir qilishi mumkin degan xulosaga kelishdi<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Thoman|first1=Dustin B.|last2=White|first2=Paul H.|last3=Yamawaki|first3=Niwako|last4=Koishi|first4=Hirofumi|year=2008|title=Variations of Gender–math Stereotype Content Affect Women's Vulnerability to Stereotype Threat|journal=[[Sex Roles (journal)|Sex Roles]]|volume=58|issue=9–10|pages=702–12|doi=10.1007/s11199-008-9390-x}}</ref>.

== Tilda ==
Til orqali jinsiy kamsitish, maʼlum bir jins vakillarini qadrsizlantirishini koʻrsatadi<ref name="online.santarosa.edu">{{Veb manbasi|url=https://online.santarosa.edu/presentation/page/?37061|sarlavha=Sexism in Language|nashriyot=Online.santarosa.edu|sana=December 23, 2014|kirish sanasi=March 31, 2015|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150904020005/http://online.santarosa.edu/presentation/page/?37061|arxivsana=September 4, 2015}}</ref>. Til orqali jinsiy kamsitish koʻp hollarda, erkaklar ustunligini saqlab qoladi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.linguarama.com/ps/legal-themed-english/sexism-in-language.htm|sarlavha=Sexism In Language—Reading—Postscript|nashriyot=Linguarama.com|kirish sanasi=March 31, 2015|arxivsana=2019-11-21|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121082351/http://www.linguarama.com/ps/legal-themed-english/sexism-in-language.htm}}</ref>. Tildagi kamsitish ongga, voqelikni idrok etishga, madaniy fikr va uzatishga va ijtimoiylashuvga taʼsir qiladi<ref name="online.santarosa.edu" />. Tadqiqotchilar meʼyor sifatida erkak tilidagi semantik qoidani aniqladilar<ref name="marxists.org">{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Dale Spender|url=https://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/ot/spender.htm|sarlavha=Man Made Language by Dale Spender|nashriyot=Marxists.org|kirish sanasi=March 31, 2015}}</ref>. Bu gender kamsitishga olib keladi, chunki erkak standart boʻlib qoladi va erkak boʻlmaganlar past darajaga tushadi<ref name="marxists.org" />. Tildagi seksizm bilvosita jinsiy kamsitishning bir shakli hisoblanadi<ref>Mills, S. (2008) Language and sexism. Cambridge University Press. Retrieved April 18, 2015 from {{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.langtoninfo.com/web_content/9780521001748_frontmatter.pdf|sarlavha=Archived copy|kirish sanasi=December 3, 2013|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131207005145/https://www.langtoninfo.com/web_content/9780521001748_frontmatter.pdf|arxivsana=December 7, 2013}}</ref>.

Bunga quyidagi misollar kiradi:

* „Insoniyat“, „odam“ (insoniyatni nazarda tutadi), „yigitlar“ yoki „ofitserlar va erkaklar“ kabi aralash jinslar guruhiga murojaat qilish uchun umumiy erkak atamalaridan foydalanish
* Nomaʼlum jinsdagi shaxsga murojaat qilish uchun birlik erkak olmoshidan (u, uning, uni) sukut boʻyicha foydalanish
* Biznesmen, rais yoki politsiyachi kabi erkak boʻlmagan shaxslar tomonidan bajarilishi mumkin boʻlgan „-man“ bilan tugaydigan atamalar
* Keraksiz gender belgilaridan foydalanish, masalan, „erkak hamshira“ oddiygina „hamshira“ sukut boʻyicha ayol ekanligiga ishora qiladi<ref name="Kennison & Trofe 2002">{{Cite journal|last=Kennison|first1=S.|last2=Trofe|first2=J.|title=Comprehending Pronouns: A Role for Word-Specific Gender Stereotype Information|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_journal-of-psycholinguistic-research_2003-05_32_3/page/355|journal=Journal of Psycholinguistic Research|volume=32|issue=3|year=2003|pages=355–378|doi=10.1023/A:1023599719948|pmid=12845944}}</ref>.

=== Jinsiy va gender-neytral til ===
XX asrning turli xil feministik harakatlari, liberal feminizm va radikal feminizmdan tortib, feminizm, postmodern feminizm va queer nazariyasigacha, oʻz nazariyasida tilni hisobga olgan<ref>Mille, Katherine Wyly and Paul McIlvenny. „Gender and Spoken Interaction: A Survey of Feminist Theories and Sociolinguistic Research in the United States and Britain.“ {{Veb manbasi|url=http://paul-server.hum.aau.dk/research/cv/Pubs/mille-mcilvenny.pdf|sarlavha=Archived copy|kirish sanasi=December 3, 2013|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050309145105/https://paul-server.hum.aau.dk/research/cv/Pubs/mille-mcilvenny.pdf|arxivsana=March 9, 2005}}</ref>. Ushbu nazariyalarning aksariyati maʼruzachilarning oʻz tillaridan foydalanish uslubini oʻzgartirishni talab qiladigan tanqidiy pozitsiyani saqlab qoldi.

=== Ingliz tilidan boshqa tillarda jinsiy kamsitish ===
[[Fransuz tili|Fransuz]]<ref name="auto">{{Yangiliklar manbasi |last=Sayare |first=Scott |date=February 22, 2012 |title=France Drops 'Mademoiselle' From Official Use |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/23/world/europe/france-drops-mademoiselle-from-official-use.html |access-date=August 26, 2019 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> va [[Ispan tili|ispan]]<ref name="auto1">{{Yangiliklar manbasi |date=March 23, 2011 |title=Mexico advises workers on sexist language—BBC News |work=BBC News |publisher=bbc.co.uk |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-12843948 |access-date=March 31, 2015}}</ref> kabi [[roman tillari]] jinsiy kamsitishni kuchaytiruvchi sifatida qaralishi mumkin, chunki erkak shakli sukut boʻyicha. „Sogʻindim“ degan maʼnoni anglatuvchi " [[wiktionary:mademoiselle|maduzel]] " soʻzi 2012 yilda Bosh vazir Fransua Fiyon tomonidan fransuz maʼmuriy shakllaridan chiqarib yuborilgan deb eʼlon qilingan edi. <ref name="auto" /> Hozirgi bosim aralash jinsli guruhda erkak koʻplik olmoshini oʻzgartirish uchun sukut boʻyicha foydalanishni talab qiladi. <ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=40545648|title=Attacking a Legacy of Sexist Grammar in the French Class: A Modest Beginning|first1=Culley Jane|last=Carson|date=1 January 1993|journal=Feminist Teacher|volume=7|issue=2|pages=34–36}}</ref> Ispan tiliga kelsak, Meksika Ichki ishlar vazirligi seksistik tildan foydalanishni kamaytirish boʻyicha qoʻllanmani nashr etdi. <ref name="auto1" />

[[Nemis tili|Nemis]] tilida soʻzlashuvchilar jinsiy aloqaning grammatika bilan qanday kesishishi haqida ham savollar berishdi. <ref>{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Nandi|ism=Jacinta|url=http://blogs.reuters.com/great-debate-uk/2011/03/05/grappling-with-language-sexism/|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110307092229/http://blogs.reuters.com/great-debate-uk/2011/03/05/grappling-with-language-sexism/|arxivsana=March 7, 2011|sarlavha=Grappling with language sexism|nashriyot=blogs.reuters.com|sana=March 5, 2011|kirish sanasi=March 31, 2015}}</ref> Nemis tili jinsi, soni va holatlari uchun ogʻir fleksiyaga ega; insonning kasbi yoki mavqeini bildiruvchi deyarli barcha otlar jinsga qarab farqlanadi. Koʻproq jinsga bogʻliq boʻlmagan konstruktsiyalar uchun baʼzan oʻrniga gerund otlari qoʻllanadi, chunki bu koʻplikdagi grammatik jins farqini yoʻq qiladi va uni birlikda sezilarli darajada kamaytiradi. Masalan, ''die Studenten'' („erkaklar talabalari“) yoki ''die Studentinnen'' („talabalar ayollar“) oʻrniga ''die Studierenden'' („oʻqiyotganlar“) deb yoziladi. <ref>{{Yangiliklar manbasi |last=Osel |first=Johann |date=February 18, 2015 |title=Gleichberechtigung im Studium: Studenten, äh, Studierende |language=de |work=Sueddeutsche.de |url=https://www.sueddeutsche.de/bildung/gleichberechtigung-im-studium-studenten-aeh-aeh-studierende-1.2355340}}</ref> Biroq, bu yondashuv noaniqlik elementini kiritadi, chunki gerund otlari oʻzlarining asosiy mashgʻuloti sifatida muntazam ravishda shugʻullanuvchini emas, balki hozirda faoliyat bilan shugʻullanuvchini bildiradi. <ref>Osel, ibid.</ref>

[[Xitoy tili|Xitoy tilida]] baʼzi yozuvchilar yozma belgilar tuzilishiga xos boʻlgan jinsiy aloqaga ishora qildilar. Misol uchun, erkak uchun xarakter jasorat va taʼsir kabi ijobiy fazilatlar bilan bogʻliq boʻlsa, xotin uchun xarakter ayol qismi va supurgidan iborat boʻlib, past baho hisoblanadi. <ref>{{Cite journal|jstor=4316075|title=Sexism in the Chinese Language|first1=Dali|last=Tan|date=1 January 1990|journal=[[NWSA Journal]]|volume=2|issue=4|pages=635–639}}</ref>

=== Genderga xos kamsituvchi atamalar ===
Jinsga xos kamsituvchi atamalar boshqa odamni jinsi tufayli qoʻrqitadi yoki ularga zarar yetkazadi. Seksizm tilda genderga qaratilgan salbiy taʼsirlar bilan ifodalanishi mumkin<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|url=https://www.anti-bullyingalliance.org.uk/media/7480/sst-guidance-quick-guide.pdf|title=Guidance for schools on preventing and responding to sexist, sexual and transphobic bullying : quick guide|date=January 1, 2009|publisher=Great Britain Department for Children, Schools and Families|oclc=663427461}} {{Webarxiv|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140716122907/http://www.anti-bullyingalliance.org.uk/media/7480/sst-guidance-quick-guide.pdf |date=2014-07-16 }}</ref>. Misol uchun, ayolni „ayol“ emas, balki „qiz“ deb ham atash mumkin, bu ularning boʻysunuvchi yoki toʻliq yetuk emasligini anglatadi. Boshqa misollar orasida behayo soʻz bor. Baʼzi soʻzlar transgenderlar uchun haqoratli, jumladan, „tranny“, „u-erkak“ yoki „he-she“. Qasddan notoʻgʻri jins (kimdirga notoʻgʻri jins belgilash) va „it“ olmoshi ham kamsituvchi hisoblanadi<ref name="Mills College Report on Inclusion of Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Students Best Practices, Assessment and Recommendations">Mills College Transgender Best Practices Taskforce & Gender Identity and Expression Sub-Committee of the Diversity and Social Justice Committee. [https://www.mills.edu/diversity/Transgender-Best-Practices-02-18-2013.pdf ''Report on Inclusion of Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Students Best Practices, Assessment and Recommendations''.] {{Webarxiv|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200448/http://www.mills.edu/diversity/Transgender-Best-Practices-02-18-2013.pdf |date=2016-03-04 }} Oakland, Calif.: Mills College, February 2013, p. 9.</ref>.

== Kasbiy seksizm ==
Kasbiy seksizm ish joyida sodir boʻlgan, odamning [[Jins|jinsiga]] asoslangan [[Diskriminatsiya|kamsituvchi]] amaliyotlar, bayonotlar yoki harakatlarni anglatadi. Kasbiy seksizmning shakllaridan biri bu ish haqini kamsitishdir. 2008-yilda [[Iqtisodiy hamkorlik va taraqqiyot tashkiloti|Iqtisodiy Hamkorlik va Taraqqiyot Tashkiloti]] (OECD) ayollarning bandlik koʻrsatkichlari kengaygan, gender bandligi va ish haqi tafovutlari deyarli hamma joyda qisqargan boʻlsa-da, ayollar oʻrtacha ish bilan taʼminlanish imkoniyati hali ham 20 % kamroq ekanligini aniqladi. Bu erkaklarga qaraganda 17 % kamroq. <ref name="oecd1"/> Hisobotda shunday deyilgan:<blockquote>[Koʻpgina mamlakatlarda] mehnat bozoridagi diskriminatsiya, yaʼni bir xil mahsuldor shaxslarga faqat maʼlum bir guruhga mansub boʻlganliklari uchun tengsiz munosabatda boʻlish hali ham bandlik va ish imkoniyatlari sifatidagi nomutanosiblikni kuchaytiruvchi hal qiluvchi omil boʻlib qolmoqda [. . . ] ''Employment Outlookning'' ushbu nashrida keltirilgan dalillar shuni koʻrsatadiki, taxminan 8{{Nbsp}}Iqtisodiy hamkorlik va hamkorlik tashkiloti mamlakatlaridagi gender bandlik tafovutidagi farqning 30 foizini mehnat bozoridagi kamsitish amaliyoti bilan izohlash mumkin<ref name="oecd1"/><ref name="oecd2">[[OECD]]. [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/36/17/43244511.pdf ''OECD Employment Outlook. Chapter 3: The Price of Prejudice: Labour Market Discrimination on the Grounds of Gender and Ethnicity''.] OECD, Paris, 2008.</ref>.</blockquote>Shuningdek, Iqtisodiy hamkorlik tashkilotining deyarli barcha mamlakatlari, shu jumladan AQSh<ref>{{Veb manbasi|sarlavha=Facts About Compensation Discrimination|muallif=The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission|url=http://www.eeoc.gov/facts/fs-epa.html|kirish sanasi=April 23, 2008}}</ref> kamsitishlarga qarshi qonunlarni oʻrnatgan boʻlsa-da, bu qonunlarni amalga oshirish qiyinligi maʼlum<ref name="oecd1">[[OECD]]. [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/8/19/40937574.pdf ''OECD Employment Outlook—2008 Edition Summary in English''.] OECD, Paris, 2008, p. 3-4.</ref>.

Asosan erkak mehnat guruhlariga kiradigan ayollar tokenizmning salbiy oqibatlarini boshdan kechirishlari mumkin: ishlash bosimi, ijtimoiy izolyatsiya va rollarni qamrab olishda<ref name="Yoder">{{Cite journal|first1=Janice D.|last=Yoder|title=Rethinking Tokenism: Looking beyond Numbers|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_gender-society_1991-06_5_2/page/178|journal=[[Gender and Society]]|volume=5|issue=2|year=1991|pages=178–192|doi=10.1177/089124391005002003}}</ref>. Tokenizm seksizmni kamuflyaj qilish, erkak ishchilarning ish joyidagi afzalliklarini saqlab qolish uchun ishlatilishi mumkin<ref name="Yoder" />. Tashkilotda/kompaniyada ishlaydigan ayollar ulushi va ularning mehnat sharoitlarini yaxshilash oʻrtasida hech qanday bogʻliqlik yoʻq. Gender masalalariga eʼtibor bermaslik ayollarning kasbiy muammolarini kuchaytirishi mumkin<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Lynn|last=Zimmer|title=Tokenism and Women in the Workplace: The Limits of Gender-Neutral Theory|journal=[[Social Problems]]|volume=35|issue=1|year=1988|pages=64–77|doi=10.2307/800667|jstor=800667|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/21ab76a200267e623cc4119ccbaafe293978329c}}</ref>.

2005-''yilgi Jahon qadriyatlari soʻrovida'' respondentlardan ish haqi faqat erkaklar uchun cheklangan boʻlishi kerak deb oʻylashadimi, deb soʻrashgan. Islandiyada bu koʻrsatkich 3,6 %, Misrda esa 94,9 % edi<ref>[[Nicole Fortin|Fortin, Nicole]], „Gender Role Attitudes and the Labour Market Outcomes of Women Across OECD Countries“, ''[[Oxford Review of Economic Policy]]'', 2005, 21, 416-438.</ref>.

=== Ishga qabul qilishda boʻshliq ===
Tadqiqotlar bir necha bor Amerika Qoʻshma Shtatlaridagi onalar teng malakali otalarga qaraganda kamroq ishga olinishini va agar ishga qabul qilingan boʻlsa, bolali erkak xodimlarga qaraganda kamroq maosh olishini koʻrsatdi<ref name="Folbre">Folbre, Nancy. [https://economix.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/03/26/family-responsibility-discrimination-would-ayn-like-fred/ ''The Anti-Mommy Bias'']. New York Times, March 26, 2009.</ref><ref name="Goodman">[[Ellen Goodman|Goodman, Ellen]]. [https://www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2007/05/11/a_third_gender_in_the_workplace/ ''A third gender in the workplace'']. [[The Boston Globe]], May 11, 2007.</ref><ref name="Cahn">Cahn, Naomi and June Carbone. [https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/05/28/AR2010052802268.html ''Five myths about working mothers'']. [[The Washington Post]], May 30, 2010.</ref><ref name="Young">Young, Lauren. [http://www.businessweek.com/careers/workingparents/blog/archives/2009/06/the_motherhood.html ''The Motherhood Penalty: Working Moms Face Pay Gap Vs. Childless Peers'']. Bloomsberg Businessweek, June 05, 2009.</ref><ref name=>{{Cite journal|last=Correll|first1=Shelley|first2=Stephen|last2=Benard|first3=In|last3=Paik|year=2007|title=Getting a job: Is there a motherhood penalty?|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_american-journal-of-sociology_2007-03_112_5/page/1297|journal=[[American Journal of Sociology]]|volume=112|issue=5|pages=1297–1338|doi=10.1086/511799}}</ref><ref name="Cornell">News.cornell.edu. [http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Aug05/soc.mothers.dea.html ''Mothers face disadvantages in getting hired'']. August 4, 2005.</ref>.  

Bir tadqiqot shuni koʻrsatdiki, ayol xodimlarning erkaklardan afzal koʻrilishi natijalari boshqa tadqiqotchilar tomonidan shubha bilan kutib olindi, chunki bu natija boshqa koʻplab tadqiqotlarga zid keladi. Kaliforniya universitetining Hastings yuridik kolleji taniqli professori Joan C.Williams uning metodologiyasi bilan bogʻliq muammolarni koʻtarib, u qoʻllagan xayoliy ayol nomzodlar juda yaxshi malakali ekanligini taʼkidladi. Oʻrtacha malakali xodimlar yordamida olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni koʻrsatdiki, erkak kishilarni ishga olish, yaxshi maosh taklif qilish va murabbiylikni taklif qilish ehtimoli koʻproq<ref>{{Cite journal|title=National hiring experiments reveal 2:1 faculty preference for women on STEM tenure track|last=Wendy M. Williams|doi=10.1073/pnas.1418878112|pmid=25870272|volume=112|issue=17|journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]]|pages=5360–5365|year=2015|bibcode=2015PNAS..112.5360W|pmc=4418903}}</ref><ref>{{Yangiliklar manbasi |last=Sarah Kaplan |date=April 14, 2015 |title=Study finds, surprisingly, that women are favored for jobs in STEM |work=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/morning-mix/wp/2015/04/14/study-finds-surprisingly-that-women-are-favored-for-jobs-in-stem/ |access-date=June 14, 2015}}</ref>

Yevropada mehnat bozorida oʻtkazilgan dala tajribalariga asoslangan tadqiqotlar ayollar jinsiga asoslangan kamsitishning jiddiy darajasi yoʻqligini isbotlaydi. Biroq, tengsiz munosabat hali ham muayyan vaziyatlarda oʻlchanadi, masalan, nomzodlar Belgiyada yuqori funksional darajadagi lavozimlarga murojaat qilganda<ref name="ReferenceC">{{Cite journal|last=Baert|first1=S.|last2=De Pauw|first2=A.-S.|last3=Deschacht|first3=N.|year=2016|title=Do Employer Preferences Contribute to Sticky Floors?|journal=[[Industrial and Labor Relations Review]]|volume=69|issue=3|pages=714736|doi=10.1177/0019793915625213|url=https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/5960457}}</ref>,   ular Fransiyada tugʻilish yoshida murojaat qilganlarida<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Petit|first1=P.|year=2007|title=The effects of age and family constraints on gender hiring discrimination: A field experiment in the French financial sector|journal=[[Labour Economics (journal)|Labour Economics]]|volume=14|issue=3|pages=371–391|doi=10.1016/j.labeco.2006.01.006}}</ref>,    ular Avstriyada erkaklar ustunlik qiladigan kasblarga murojaat qilganlarida<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Weichselbaumer|first1=D.|year=2004|title=Is it sex or personality? The impact of sex stereotypes on discrimination in applicant selection|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_eastern-economic-journal_spring-2004_30_2/page/159|journal=[[Eastern Economic Journal]]|volume=30|issue=2|pages=159–186|jstor=40326127}}</ref> oʻrtadagi tengsiz munosabatlarni koʻrish mumkin.

=== Daromaddagi farq ===
[[Fayl:EU_27_Gender_Pay_Gap_2014.png|link=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/EU_27_Gender_Pay_Gap_2014.png/300px-EU_27_Gender_Pay_Gap_2014.png|alt=Bar graph showing the gender pay gap in European countries|thumb| Yevrostat 2014-yil maʼlumotlariga koʻra, oʻrtacha soatlik ish haqi boʻyicha gender farqi<ref name="EC stats">[[European Commission]]. [http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-pay-gap/situation-europe/index_en.htm ''The situation in the EU''.] Retrieved on August 19, 2011.</ref>.]]
Tadqiqotlar shuni koʻrsatdiki, dunyo boʻylab ayollar erkaklarnikiga qaraganda kam maosh oladilar. Baʼzilarning taʼkidlashicha, bu ish joyida keng tarqalgan gender diskriminatsiyasidan kelib chiqadi. Boshqalar esa, ish haqidagi tafovut erkaklar va ayollarning turli tanlovlaridan kelib chiqadi, masalan, ayollarning farzand koʻrishni erkaklarga qaraganda koʻproq qadrlashi va erkaklarning biznes, muhandislik va texnologiya kabi yuqori maoshli sohalarda kasb tanlashi ayollarga qaraganda koʻproq.

Yevrostat 2008-yilda [[Yevropa Ittifoqi aʼzolari roʻyxati|Yevropa Ittifoqiga aʼzo 27 ta davlatda]] gender oʻrtacha ish haqi boʻyicha 27,5 % tafovutni aniqladi<ref name="EC stats">[[European Commission]]. [http://ec.europa.eu/justice/gender-equality/gender-pay-gap/situation-europe/index_en.htm ''The situation in the EU''.] Retrieved on August 19, 2011.</ref>. Shunga oʻxshab, OECD 2009-yilda toʻla vaqtli ishlaydigan ayollar OECD mamlakatlaridagi erkaklarnikiga qaraganda 27 % kam maosh olishini maʼllum qildi<ref name="oecd1"/><ref name="oecd2"/>.

Qoʻshma Shtatlarda 2009-yilda ayollarning erkaklarga daromad nisbati 0,77 ni tashkil etdi; toʻliq vaqtli, yil boʻyi (FTYR) ishlaydigan ayollar FTYR erkaklariga qaraganda 77 % koʻproq maosh oladilar. Ayollarning ish haqi erkaklarnikiga nisbatan 1960-yildan 1980-yilgacha (56,7-54,2 %) qisqardi, 1980-yildan 1990-yilgacha (54,2-67,6 %) tez oʻsdi. 1990-yildan 2000-yilgacha (67,6-71,2 %) tenglashtirildi va 1960-yildan 1980-yilgacha (56,7-54,2 %) oʻsdi −77,0 %)<ref name="census 2009">U.S. Census Bureau. [https://www.census.gov/prod/2010pubs/p60-238.pdf ''Income, Poverty, and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States: 2009'']. Current Population Reports, P60-238, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 2010, pp. 7 and 50.</ref><ref>Institute for Womenʼs Policy Research. [http://www.iwpr.org/publications/pubs/the-gender-wage-gap-2009 ''The Gender Wage Gap: 2009''.] Retrieved March 31, 2011.</ref>. 2010-yillarning oxiriga kelib, u 1990-2000-yillardagi darajaga kamaydi (68,6-71,1 %)<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=https://dqydj.com/2018-income-by-sex/|sarlavha=Male Income Percentile and Female Income Percentile Calculator in 2018|sana=December 4, 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=https://dqydj.com/income-by-sex/|sarlavha=Income by Sex: Average, Median, 1%, and Calculator – DQYDJ|sana=October 2020}}</ref>. 1963-yilda birinchi „Teng ish haqi toʻgʻrisida“ gi qonun qabul qilinganda, toʻliq kunlik ishlaydigan ayollar erkaklarga qaraganda 48,9 % koʻproq maosh olganlar<ref name="census 2009" />.

Chexiya va Slovakiyada olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni koʻrsatadiki, hukumatlar diskriminatsiyaga qarshi qonun qabul qilganidan keyin ham ish haqidagi gender tafovutining uchdan ikki qismi tushuntirilmagan va segregatsiya „boʻshliqning asosiy manbai“ boʻlib qolgan<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Štěpán|last=Jurajda|year=2005|title=Gender Segregation and Wage Gap: An East-West Comparison|journal=[[Journal of the European Economic Association]]|volume=3|issue=2–3|pages=598–607|doi=10.1162/jeea.2005.3.2-3.598|url=https://semanticscholar.org/paper/d81f696cbc2021e5bc7725325b8d57a83671d1c1}}</ref>.

Jinslar orasidagi tafovut kasb va kasb doirasida ham farq qilishi mumkin. Masalan, Tayvanda olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni koʻrsatadiki, ish haqi toʻgʻrisidagi gender tafovutlarining asosiy qismi kasbda ishlash jarayonida sodir boʻladi<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Joseph E., Jr.|last=Zveglich|first2=Yana van der Meulen|last2=Rodgers|title=Occupational Segregation and the Gender Wage Gap in a Dynamic East Asian Economy|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_southern-economic-journal_2004-04_70_4/page/850|journal=[[Southern Economic Journal]]|volume=70|issue=4|year=2004|pages=850–875|doi=10.2307/4135276|jstor=4135276}}</ref>. Rossiyada tadqiqotlar shuni koʻrsatadiki, gender ish haqi farqi daromad darajasi boʻyicha notekis taqsimlangan<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|first1=Christopher J.|last=Gerry|first2=Byung-Yeon|last2=Kim|first3=Carmen A.|last3=Li|title=The Gender Wage Gap and Wage Arrears in Russia: Evidence from the RLMS|journal=[[Journal of Population Economics]]|volume=17|issue=2|year=2004|pages=267–288|doi=10.1007/s00148-003-0160-3|url=http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/17553/1/17553.pdf}}</ref>. Tadqiqot shuni koʻrsatdiki, „ish haqi boʻyicha qarzlar va natura shaklida toʻlovlar, ayniqsa, eng kam maosh oladigan ishchilar oʻrtasida ish haqi kamsitishini yengillashtirdi, bu esa Rossiya korxonalari rahbarlarining ushbu toʻlov shakllarini taqsimlashda oʻz kapitalini hisobga olishga juda kam ahamiyat berishlarini koʻrsatmoqda“<ref name=":1" />.

Ish haqi boʻyicha gender tafovuti erkaklar va ayollar oʻrtasidagi shaxsiy va ish joyidagi xususiyatlardagi farqlar (masalan, taʼlim, ish vaqti va kasbi), erkaklar va ayollar oʻrtasidagi tugʻma xulq-atvor va biologik farqlar va mehnat bozoridagi kamsitish (gender stereotiplari, mijoz va ish beruvchining tarafkashligi va boshqalar) bilan bogʻliq. Ayollar bolalarni tarbiyalash uchun erkaklarnikiga qaraganda koʻproq vaqt ajratadilar<ref>The Open University: Learning Space.[http://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/ECON303-8.2.1.pdf „Economics Explains Discrimination in the Labour Market.“] Accessed June 29, 2012</ref>. Ayrim mamlakatlarda, masalan, Janubiy Koreyada, turmush qurgandan soʻng, ayol xodimlarni ishdan boʻshatish uzoq vaqtdan beri mavjud boʻlgan amaliyotdir<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Gyeongjoon|last=Yoo|year=2003|title=Quality of Life Across Population Groups: Women in the Workplace: Gender and Wage Differentials|journal=Social Indicators Research|volume=62|issue=1–3|pages=367–385|doi=10.1023/A:1022661604653}}</ref>. Professor Linda K. Babkokning „''Women Donʼt Ask''“ kitobida o‘tkazgan tadqiqoti shuni ko‘rsatadiki, erkaklar ish haqini oshirishni sakkiz baravar ko‘proq so‘rashadi, bu esa ish haqi tengsizligi qisman jinslar o‘rtasidagi xulq-atvor farqlari natijasi bo‘lishi mumkinligini ko‘rsatadi<ref>{{Kitob manbasi|chapter=Women Don't Ask|title=Women Don't Ask: Negotiation and the Gender Divide|first=Linda|last=Babcock|year=2003|publisher=Princeton University Press|chapterurl=https://assets.press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7575.pdf}}</ref>. Biroq, tadqiqotlar, odatda, daromadga taʼsir koʻrsatadigan omillarni hisobga olgandan soʻng, gender ish haqi farqining bir qismi tushuntirilmaganligini aniqlaydi; ish haqi farqining tushuntirilmagan qismi gender kamsitish bilan bogʻliq<ref>[[United States Congress Joint Economic Committee]]. [http://jec.senate.gov/public/?a=Files.Serve&File_id=9118a9ef-0771-4777-9c1f-8232fe70a45c ''Invest in Women, Invest in America: A Comprehensive Review of Women in the U.S. Economy'']. Washington, DC, December 2010, p. 80.</ref>.

Jinslar boʻyicha ish haqi farqining kamsituvchi komponentini baholash turlicha. OECD maʼlumotlariga koʻra, OECD mamlakatlaridagi gender ish haqi farqining taxminan 30 % diskriminatsiya tufaylidir<ref name="oecd1"/>. Avstraliya tadqiqotlari shuni koʻrsatadiki, kamsitish erkaklar va ayollar oʻrtasidagi ish haqi farqining taxminan 60 % ni tashkil qiladi<ref>{{Cite journal|first1=Ian|last=Watson|year=2010|title=Decomposing the Gender Pay Gap in the Australian Managerial Labour Market|journal=Australian Journal of Labour Economics|volume=13|issue=1|pages=49–79|url=https://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=150518123437760;res=IELBus}}</ref> . Qoʻshma Shtatlardagi gender ish haqi farqini oʻrganuvchi tadqiqotlar bergan maʼlumotga koʻra, ish haqiga taʼsir etuvchi omillarni nazorat qilgandan soʻng, ish haqi farqining katta qismi tushuntirilmaydi. Kollej bitiruvchilari ustida olib borilgan bir tadqiqot shuni koʻrsatdiki, boshqa barcha omillar hisobga olinsa, ish haqi boʻyicha tushunarsiz boʻlgan qismi oʻqishni tugatgandan keyin bir yil oʻtgach besh foizni va oʻqishni tugatgandan keyin oʻn yil oʻtgach 12 foizni tashkil qiladi<ref name="denverpost.com">Carman, Diane. [http://www.denverpost.com/news/ci_5735341 ''Why do men earn more? Just because'']. Denver Post, April 24, 2007.</ref><ref>Arnst, Cathy. [http://www.businessweek.com/careers/workingparents/blog/archives/2007/04/working_women_a.html ''Women and the pay gap'']. [[Bloomberg Businessweek]], April 27, 2007.</ref><ref>American Management Association. [http://www.amanet.org/training/articles/Bridging-the-Gender-Pay-Gap.aspx ''Bridging the Gender Pay Gap''] {{Webarxiv|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180830174154/https://www.amanet.org/training/articles/bridging-the-gender-pay-gap.aspx |date=2018-08-30 }}. October 17, 2007.</ref>. Amerika Universitet Ayollari Assotsiatsiyasi tomonidan olib borilgan tadqiqot shuni koʻrsatdiki, Qoʻshma Shtatlarda bitiruvchi ayollar bir xil ish bilan shugʻullanadigan va bir xil mutaxassislik boʻyicha erkaklarnikiga qaraganda kamroq maosh oladi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Morrison|ism=Megan|sarlavha=Persistent Pay Gap Affects Women Just One Year Out of College|url=https://www.aauw.org/files/2013/02/graduating-to-a-pay-gap-the-earnings-of-women-and-men-one-year-after-college-graduation.pdf|kirish sanasi=February 21, 2013|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603004740/http://www.aauw.org/files/2013/02/graduating-to-a-pay-gap-the-earnings-of-women-and-men-one-year-after-college-graduation.pdf|arxivsana=June 3, 2013}}</ref>.
[[Fayl:US_gender_pay_gap,_by_sex,_race-ethnicity-2009.png|link=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/US_gender_pay_gap%2C_by_sex%2C_race-ethnicity-2009.png/300px-US_gender_pay_gap%2C_by_sex%2C_race-ethnicity-2009.png|alt=Graph showing weekly earnings by various categories|thumb| Jins, irq va etnik kelib chiqishi boʻyicha toʻliq kunlik ish haqi va ish haqi ishchilarining oʻrtacha haftalik daromadi, AQSh, 2009-yil<ref name="bls 2009">U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. [http://www.bls.gov/cps/cpswom2009.pdf ''Highlights of Womenʼs Earnings in 2009'']. Report 1025, June 2010.</ref>]]
Ish haqini kamsitish, [[Talab va taklif|talab va taklifning]] iqtisodiy konseptsiyasiga zid boʻlgan nazariyaga koʻra, agar tovar yoki xizmat (bu holda, mehnat) talabga ega boʻlsa va qiymatga ega boʻlsa, u bozorda oʻz narxini topadi. Agar ishchi kamroq ish haqi evaziga teng qiymat taklif qilsa, talab va taklif kam haq toʻlanadigan ishchilarga katta talabni koʻrsatadi. Agar korxona xuddi shu ish uchun kamroq maoshli ishchilarni yollagan boʻlsa, u oʻz xarajatlarini kamaytiradi va raqobatdosh ustunlikka ega boʻladi. Talab va taklifga koʻra, agar ayollar teng qiymat taklif qilsa, talab (va ish haqi) oshishi kerak, chunki ular oʻz xizmatlari uchun erkaklarnikiga qaraganda yaxshiroq narxni (pastroq ish haqi) taklif qilishadi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.swifteconomics.com/2009/09/21/lies-damned-lies-and-statistics-the-wage-gap/|sarlavha=Lies, Damned Lies and Statistics: The Wage Gap|nashriyot=Swift Economics|sana=September 21, 2009|kirish sanasi=July 20, 2013|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130705013033/http://www.swifteconomics.com/2009/09/21/lies-damned-lies-and-statistics-the-wage-gap|arxivsana=July 5, 2013}}</ref>.

Kornell universitetida va boshqa joylarda olib borilgan tadqiqotlar shuni koʻrsatadiki, Qoʻshma Shtatlardagi onalar teng malakali otalarga qaraganda kamroq ishga olinadi va agar ishga olingan boʻlsa, bolali erkak xodimlarga qaraganda kamroq maosh oladi<ref name="Folbre"/><ref name="Goodman"/><ref name="Cahn"/><ref name="Young"/><ref name=/><ref name="Cornell"/>. OECD „bolalar ayollarning ish haqiga sezilarli taʼsiri odatda Buyuk Britaniya va Qoʻshma Shtatlarda uchraydi“ deb topdi<ref name="oecd.org">OECD (2002). [http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/28/58/18960381.pdf ''Employment Outlook, Chapter 2: Women at work: who are they and how are they faring?''] Paris: OECD 2002.</ref>. Otalar farzandsiz erkaklarnikiga qaraganda oʻrtacha 7500 [[AQSh dollari|dollar]] koʻproq maosh oladi<ref name="womensmedia.com">{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Hilary M. Lips|sana=September 7, 2009|sarlavha=Blaming Women's Choices for the Gender Pay Gap|url=http://www.womensmedia.com/new/Lips-Hilary-blaming-gender-pay-gap.shtml|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130523193124/http://www.womensmedia.com/money/178-blaming-womens-choices-for-the-gender-pay-gap.html|arxivsana=May 23, 2013|nashriyot=WomensMedia}}</ref>.

Gender ish haqi farqi iqtisodiyot uchun katta yoʻqotishlarga olib kelishini koʻrsatadigan tadqiqotlar mavjud<ref>{{Cite journal|title=The Output Cost of Gender Discrimination: A Model-based Macroeconomics Estimate|journal=The Economic Journal|date=February 1, 2016|issn=1468-0297|pages=109–134|volume=126|issue=590|doi=10.1111/ecoj.12303|language=en|first1=Tiago|last=Cavalcanti|first2=José|last2=Tavares|url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/267278}}</ref>.

== Gender identifikatsiyasi kamsitish ==
Gender diskriminatsiyasi — bu haqiqiy yoki idrok etilgan [[Gender identifikatori|gender]] kimligiga asoslangan kamsitish<ref name="fas.org" />. Gender identifikatori „tugʻilishda shaxsning belgilangan jinsidan qatʼi nazar yoki hisobga olinmasdan, jinsga bogʻliq oʻziga xoslik, tashqi koʻrinish yoki xulq-atvor yoki boshqa jinsga bogʻliq xususiyatlar“ kiradi<ref name="fas.org">{{Veb manbasi|muallif=Feder, Jody|sarlavha=Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Discrimination in Employment: A Legal Analysis of the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA)|sana=July 15, 2013|url=https://fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40934.pdf|nashriyot=[[Congressional Research Service]]|kirish sanasi=March 31, 2015}}</ref>.  

=== Oiladagi zoʻravonlik ===
 
[[Fayl:Acid_attack_victim.jpg|link=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Acid_attack_victim.jpg/300px-Acid_attack_victim.jpg|alt=Portrait of a female acid attack victim showing facial injuries|thumb| [[Kambodja|Kambodjada]] kislotali hujum qurboni]]
Aniq stavkalar keng muhokama qilinsa-da, oiladagi zoʻravonlik asosan erkaklar tomonidan ayollarga nisbatan sodir etilganligi haqida koʻplab madaniyatlararo dalillar mavjud<ref name="Dobash1992">{{Cite journal|last=Dobash|first1=R. P.|last2=Dobash|first2=R. E.|last3=Wilson|first3=M.|last4=Daly|first4=M.|title=The Myth of Sexual Symmetry in Marital Violence|url=https://archive.org/details/sim_social-problems_1992-02_39_1/page/71|journal=[[Social Problems]]|volume=39|pages=71–91|year=1992|doi=10.1525/sp.1992.39.1.03x0064l}}</ref><ref name="Compton2010">{{Kitob manbasi|last=Compton|first=Michael T.|title=Clinical Manual of Prevention in Mental Health|year=2010|publisher=[[American Psychiatric Publishing]]|location=Washington, D.C.|isbn=978-1-58562-347-1|page=245|edition=1st|quote=Women are more often the victims of domestic violence than men and are more likely to suffer injuries and health consequences{{nbsp}}…}}</ref><ref name="Brinkerhoff2008">{{Kitob manbasi|last=Brinkerhoff|first=David B.|title=Essentials of Sociology|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialsofsoci0000unse_t8c1|year=2008|publisher=[[Thomson/Wadsworth]]|isbn=978-0-495-09636-8|page=[https://archive.org/details/essentialsofsoci0000unse_t8c1/page/13 13]|edition=7th|quote=A conflict analysis of domestic violence, for example, would begin by noting that women are battered far more often and far more severely than are men{{nbsp}}…}}</ref>. Bundan tashqari, ayollar koʻpincha zoʻravonlikning ogʻir shakllariga duchor boʻlishlari va tajovuzkor sherik tomonidan jarohatlanish ehtimoli koʻproq ekanligi haqida keng konsensus mavjud<ref name="Compton2010" /><ref name="Brinkerhoff2008" />. Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkiloti oiladagi zoʻravonlikni [[Ayollarga nisbatan zoʻravonlik|genderga asoslangan zoʻravonlik]] shakli sifatida tan oladi, u [[Inson huquqlari|inson huquqlarining]] buzilishi va jinsiy kamsitishning natijasi sifatida taʼriflaydi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=https://www.un.org/documents/ga/res/48/a48r104.htm|sarlavha=A/RES/48/104. Declaration on the Elimination of Violence against Women|nashriyot=Un.org|kirish sanasi=March 16, 2015}}</ref>.

Oiladagi zoʻravonlik dunyoning koʻp joylarida jim kuzatiladi. Hatto qonuniy ravishda qabul qilingan. Misol uchun, 2010-yilda [[Birlashgan Arab Amirliklari]] (BAA) Oliy sudi, agar erkak koʻrinadigan iz qoldirmasa, xotini va bolalarini jismonan tartibga solishga haqli degan qarorga keldi<ref>{{Yangiliklar manbasi |date=October 19, 2010 |title=Court in UAE says beating wife, child OK if no marks are left |publisher=CNN |url=http://articles.cnn.com/2010-10-19/world/uae.court.ruling_1_islamic-law-sharia-law-ruling?_s=PM:WORLD |url-status=dead |access-date=July 20, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120325143850/http://articles.cnn.com/2010-10-19/world/uae.court.ruling_1_islamic-law-sharia-law-ruling?_s=PM%3AWORLD |archive-date=March 25, 2012}}</ref>. 2015-yilda Equality Now Shimoliy Nigeriya Jinoyat kodeksining ''bola, oʻquvchi, xizmatchi yoki xotinni tuzatish'' deb nomlangan boʻlimiga eʼtibor qaratdi, unda shunday deyilgan: „(1) Hech narsa ogʻir jarohat yetkazish bilan bogʻliq boʻlmagan jinoyat emas. Amalga oshirgan har qanday shaxslar:&nbsp;.. er oʻz xotinini tuzatish maqsadida, bunda er va xotin har qanday mahalliy qonun yoki odatlarga boʻysunadi, shundagina tuzatish qonuniy deb topiladi“<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.equalitynow.org/law/the_penal_code_of_northern_nigeria|sarlavha=The Penal Code of Northern Nigeria|nashriyot=Equalitynow.org|sana=February 6, 2015|kirish sanasi=March 31, 2015|arxivurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402123608/http://www.equalitynow.org/law/the_penal_code_of_northern_nigeria|arxivsana=April 2, 2015}}</ref>.

Namoyish uchun qotillik uydagi zo‘ravonlikning yana bir ko‘rinishi bo‘lib, dunyoning bir qancha mamlakatlarida qo‘llaniladigan zo‘ravonlik bo‘lib, ularning qurbonlari asosan ayollardir<ref name="Maris2001">{{Cite journal|last=Maris|first1=Cees|last2=Sawitri Saharso|title=Honour Killing: A Case for Cultural Defense?|journal=Pluralism and Law: Proceedings of the 20th IVR World Congress, Amsterdam, 2001|year=2001|volume=3|page=108}}</ref>. Nomus uchun qotilliklar, uyushtirilgan nikohga kirishdan bosh tortish, qarindoshlar maʼqullamagan munosabatlarni saqlab qolish, nikohdan tashqari jinsiy kamsitish, zoʻrlash qurboni boʻlish, nomunosib deb koʻrilgan kiyim yoki gomoseksualizm tufayli sodir boʻlishi mumkin<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/honourcrimes/crimesofhonour_1.shtml#h3|sarlavha=BBC—Ethics—Honour crimes|ish=bbc.co.uk}}</ref><ref>{{Yangiliklar manbasi |date=January 13, 2012 |title=Shocking gay honor killing inspires movie—CNN.com |work=CNN |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2012/01/13/world/europe/turkey-gay-killing}}</ref><ref>{{Yangiliklar manbasi |date=February 23, 2011 |title=Iraqi immigrant convicted in Arizona 'honor killing' awaits sentence |work=CNN |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2011/CRIME/02/23/arizona.iraqi.father/index.html}}</ref>. Birlashgan Millatlar Tashkilotining Giyohvand moddalar va jinoyatchilik boʻyicha boshqarmasi taʼkidlaganidek, „bizning jinoyatlarimiz, jumladan, qotillik tarixdagi genderga asoslangan zoʻravonlikning eng qadimgi shakllaridan biridir“<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/hb_eff_police_responses.pdf|sarlavha=Effective police responses to violence against women|ish=unodc.org|kirish sanasi=December 4, 2019}}</ref>

Namoyish uchun qotillik va toshboʻron qilish kabi amaliyotlar baʼzi mamlakatlarda asosiy siyosatchilar va boshqa rasmiylar tomonidan qoʻllab-quvvatlanmoqda. Pokistonda, 2008-yilda Balujistondagi sharafli qotilliklardan so‘ng, besh ayol [[Balujiston|Balujistonning]] Umrani qabilasining qabiladoshlari tomonidan o‘ldiriladi. Pokiston federal pochta xizmati vaziri Israr Ulloh Zehri bu amaliyotni himoya qildi:<ref name="times">{{Yangiliklar manbasi |last=Hussain |first=Zahid |date=September 5, 2008 |title=Three teenagers buried alive in 'honour killings' |work=[[Times Online]] |location=London |url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/asia/article4678530.ece |access-date=September 5, 2008}}{{Subscription required}}</ref> „Bu ko‘p asrlik anʼanalar va men. ularni himoya qilishda davom etaman. Faqat axloqsiz ishlarga qo‘l urganlargina qo‘rqsinlar“<ref name="telegraph">{{Yangiliklar manbasi |date=September 1, 2008 |title=Pakistani women buried alive 'for choosing husbands' |work=Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/2660881/Pakistani-women-buried-alive-for-choosing-husbands.html |url-status=live |url-access=subscription |access-date=September 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/pakistan/2660881/Pakistani-women-buried-alive-for-choosing-husbands.html |archive-date=January 11, 2022}}</ref>. 2006-yildagi Sakine Muhammad Ashtianiy (Eronda toshboʻron qilingani uchun xalqaro bosim ostida qoldirgan) ishi ortidan Eron Inson huquqlari kengashining yuqori martabali vakili va rahbari Muhammad-Javod Larijoniy toshboʻron qilish amaliyotini himoya qildi; uning taʼkidlashicha, bu [[Oʻlim jazosi|qatl]] qilishdan koʻra „kamroq jazo“ edi, chunki bu mahkumlarga omon qolish imkoniyatini berdi<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/outrage-iran-human-rights-officials-defense-stoning/story?id=12193085#.UE4Qi64Zh0I|sarlavha=Outrage Over Iran Human Rights Official's Defense of Stoning|nashriyot=Abcnews.go.com|sana=November 19, 2010|kirish sanasi=July 20, 2013}}</ref>.

Sirli oʻlimlar (turmush qurgan ayollarning oʻldirilishi yoki oʻz joniga qasd qilishga majburlash) nikoh uchun yuqori toʻlovni toʻlashga qodir boʻlmagan ayollarning oʻldirilishi natijasida yuzaga keladi. Xalqaro Amnistiya tashkilotiga koʻra, „mahr bilan bogʻliq zoʻravonlikning davom etayotgan haqiqati ayollarga mulk sifatida qaralganda nima boʻlishi mumkinligiga misoldir“<ref>{{Veb manbasi|url=http://www.amnestyusa.org/our-work/issues/women-s-rights/violence-against-women/violence-against-women-information|sarlavha=Violence Against Women Information|ish=Amnesty International USA}}</ref>.
== Manbalar ==
{{manbalar}}

== Adabiyotlar ==
* Atwell, Mary Welek. 2002. 'Equal Protection of the Law?: Gender and Justice in the United States'. New York: P. Lang. {{ISBN?}}
* Benatar, David. ''The Second Sexism: Discrimination Against Men And Boys''. 2012. [[John Wiley & Sons]] Inc., West Sussex, UK; {{ISBN|978-0-470-67446-8}}
* {{cite journal |last=Bojarska |first=Katarzyna |year=2012 |title=Responding to lexical stimuli with gender associations: A Cognitive–Cultural Model |journal=[[Journal of Language and Social Psychology]] |doi=10.1177/0261927X12463008 |volume=32 |pages=46–61|s2cid=145006661 }}
* {{cite book | last1=Cudd | first1=Ann E. | last2=Andreasen | first2=Robin O. | author-link1=Ann Cudd | title=Feminist theory: a philosophical anthology | publisher=[[Blackwell Publishing]] | location=Oxford, UK Malden, Massachusetts | year=2005 | isbn=9781405116619 }} Part II What is Sexism? pp.&nbsp;69-114.
* {{citation | last1=Cudd | first1=Ann E. | last2=Jones | first2=Leslie E. | author-link1=Ann Cudd | contribution=Sexism | editor1-last=Frey | editor1-first=R.G. | editor2-last=Heath Wellman | editor2-first=Christopher | title=A companion to applied ethics | pages=[https://archive.org/details/companiontoappli0000unse/page/102 102–117] | publisher=Blackwell Publishing | series=Blackwell Companions to Philosophy | location=Oxford, UK; Malden, Massachusetts | year=2005 | doi=10.1002/9780470996621.ch8 | isbn=9781405133456 | postscript=. | url=https://archive.org/details/companiontoappli0000unse/page/102 }}
* „Discrimination against Transgender People.“ ACLU. Available (online) : https://www.aclu.org/lgbt-rights/discrimination-against-transgender-people"Discrimination against Transgender People." ACLU. Available (online) : https://www.aclu.org/lgbt-rights/discrimination-against-transgender-people
* „Employment Non-Discrimination Act“. Human Rights Campaign. Available (online): https://web.archive.org/web/20140520071809/http://www.hrc.org/laws-and-legislation/federal-legislation/employment-non-discrimination-act
* Feder, Jody and Cynthia Brougher. ''Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity Discrimination in Employment: A Legal Analysis of the Employment'' {{ISBN?}}
* Haberfeld, Yitchak. ''Employment Discrimination: An Organizational Model'' {{ISBN?}}
* Hurst, C. ''Social Inequality: Forms, Causes, and Consequences''. Sixth Edition. 2007. 131, 139-142 {{ISBN?}}
* Macklem, Tony. 2004. Beyond Comparison: Sex and Discrimination. New York: [[Cambridge University Press]]. {{ISBN?}}
* Matsumoto, David. ''The Handbook of Culture and Psychology'' [[Oxford University Press]], 2001. {{ISBN|0-19-513181-9}}.
* Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA)." July 15, 2013. Available (online): www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R40934.pdf
* [[Leila Schneps]] and [[Coralie Colmez]], ''Math on trial. How numbers get used and abused in the courtroom'', [[Basic Books]], 2013. {{ISBN|978-0-465-03292-1}}. (Sixth chapter: „Math error number 6: Simpsonʼs paradox. The Berkeley sex bias case: discrimination detection“).
* „Transgender.“ UC Berkekely Online. Available (online): http://geneq.berkeley.edu/lgbt_resources_definiton_of_terms#transgender ↑ ↑ „Discrimination against Transgender People.“ ACLU. Available (online) : https://www.aclu.org/lgbt-rights/discrimination-against-transgender-people
* ''Management Journal'' 35.1 (1992): 161-180. Business Source Complete.
* Kail, R., & Cavanaugh, J. (2010). ''Human Growth and Development'' (5 ed.). Belmont, Ca: [[Cengage|Wadsworth Learning]] {{ISBN?}}

== Havolalar ==
* [https://www.huffingtonpost.com/news/sexism-in-the-workplace/ Sexism in the Workplace]
* [https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/womens-blog/2014/jul/30/10-sexist-scenarios-women-deal-work-ignored-maternity-risk-everyday-sexism 10 sexist scenarios that women face at work]
* [http://www.fastcompany.com/3031101/the-future-of-work/the-new-subtle-sexism-toward-women-in-the-workplace The New Subtle Sexism Toward Women in the Workplace]
* [http://www.linguarama.com/ps/legal-themed-english/sexism-in-language.htm Sexism in Language] {{Webarxiv|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191121082351/http://www.linguarama.com/ps/legal-themed-english/sexism-in-language.htm |date=2019-11-21 }}
* [http://grammar.yourdictionary.com/style-and-usage/sexist-language.html Sexist Language]


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