Hind tillari tarixi
Hindiston tillari turli til oilalariga bo'lingan, ulardan hind-aryan va dravid tillari eng ko'p gapiriladi. Bundan tashqari, bir-biriga bog'liq bo'lmagan til oilalariga mansub ko'plab tillar mavjud, masalan, Austroasiatic va Sino-Tibet tillarida kichikroq guruhlar gapiradi.
Hind-Aryan tillari[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Proto-Hind-Aryan[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Proto-hind-aryan proto-til bo'lib, barcha hind-aryan tillarining bevosita ajdodi bo'lgan deb taxmin qilinadi.[1] U proto-hind-eron tiliga o'xshash bo'lgan , lekin oxir-oqibat sanskritlashgan fonema va morfemalardan foydalanilgan.
Qadimgi hind-aryan[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Vedik sanskrit[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Vedik sanskrit - Vedalarning tili bo'lib, Hindistondagi eng qadimgi diniy matnlarni tashkil etuvchi va hind dinining ko'pchiligi uchun asos bo'lgan madhiyalar, afsunlar va diniy-falsafiy munozaralarning katta to'plamidir . Zamonaviy tilshunoslar Rigvedaning metrik madhiyalarini eng qadimgi deb bilishadi. Rigvedada saqlangan madhiyalar yozuv paydo bo'lishidan bir necha asrlar oldin faqat og'zaki an'analar orqali saqlanib qolgan, ular orasida eng qadimgi oriy tili Brahmi kiritilishidan ming yil oldin bo'lgan.
Klassik sanskrit[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Sanskrit grammatikasi saqlanib qolgan eng qadimgi til Paninining miloddan avvalgi Aṣṭādhyāyī ("Sakkiz bobli grammatika") tilidir. Miloddan avvalgi 5-asrga tegishli. Bu mohiyatan retsept grammatikasi, ya'ni to'g'ri sanskrit tilini belgilaydigan vakolatdir, garchi unda tavsiflovchi qismlar mavjud bo'lsa-da, asosan, Panini davrida allaqachon qo'llanilmay qolgan Vedik shakllarini o'qish uchun saqlab qolingan.
Sanskrit tilini bilish ijtimoiy sinf va ta'lim darajasining belgisi edi.
O'rta hind-aryan[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Prakritlar[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Prakrit sanskritcha prākṛta प्राकृत, प्राकृ soʻzining oʻtgan zamon sifatdoshi, "asl, tabiiy, sanʼatsiz, oddiy, oddiy, odatiy", yaʼni "xalq tili", aksincha, " samrtaex " degan maʼnoni anglatadi. Ikkala sifat ham elliptik tarzda vak "nutq" ga ishora qiladi. Hind-oriy tillari va qadimgi Hindistonda gapiriladigan dialektlarning keng oilasi. Ba'zi zamonaviy olimlar barcha o'rta hind-aryan tillarini "Prakritlar" rukni ostida o'z ichiga olishini, boshqalari esa bu tillarning mustaqil rivojlanishini ta'kidlaydilar, ko'pincha sanskrit tarixidan kasta,din va geografiyaning keng bo'linmalari bilan ajralib turgan.
[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Hindustan[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Hindustani tili hozirda Hindiston yarimorolidagi eng koʻp gapiriladigan til va dunyoda toʻrtinchi eng koʻp gapiriladigan tildir. Hindustani tilining rivojlanishi ,asosan, Sauraseni Apabhramshadan kelib chiqqan turli hind lahjalari atrofida birlashadi. 933-yilda yozilgan Jain matni Shravakachar birinchi hind kitobi hisoblanadi.[2] Zamonaviy hind tili Dehli sultonligining barpo etilishi bilan fors va arabcha so'zlarni ham qabul qila boshlagan nufuzli Xariboli lahjasiga asoslanadi. Ammo, arab-fors tili, asosan, urdu tiliga va kamroq darajada hind tiliga chuqur ta'sir ko'rsatdi. Xadiboli, shuningdek, ilgari hindustani nomi bilan mashhur bo'lgan xalq tili sifatida Shimoliy Hindiston bo'ylab tarqala boshladi. Amir Xusrov Xariboli va Brajbxasha ushbu tilda she'rlar yozgan va bu tilni hindavi deb atagan. Bxakti davrida Xariboli, Brajbxasa va Avadxi tillarida ko'plab she'rlar yaratilgan. Ana shunday klassiklardan biri Tulsidas tomonidan Avadi tilida yozilgan Ramcharitmanasdir. 1623- yilda Jatmal Xaribolida "Gora Badal ki Katha" nomli kitob yozadi.
Dravid tillari[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Andoza:Dravidian languages genealogyDravid tillari oilasiga taxminan 73 ta til kiradi[3], ular asosan Hindiston janubi va Shri-Lanka shimoli-sharqida, shuningdek, Pokiston, Nepal, Bangladesh, sharqiy va markaziy Hindistonning ayrim hududlarida, shuningdek, janubiy Afgʻonistonning ayrim hududlarida soʻzlashadi va chet elda Buyuk Britaniya, Amerika Qo'shma Shtatlari, Kanada, Malayziya va Singapur kabi boshqa mamlakatlarda ham bu tilda so'zlashuvchilarni uchratish mumkin
Tamil tili tarixi[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Tilshunoslik tarixi proto-dravid tilida miloddan avvalgi 6-ming yillikda gapirilganligini ko'rsatadi. Moddiy dalillar shuni ko'rsatadiki, proto-dravid tilida so'zlashuvchilarning Janubiy Hindistonning neolit majmualari bilan bog'liq madaniyati bo'lgan.[4] Tamilning qayta tiklangan proto-tarixidagi keyingi bosqich proto-Janubiy Dravidiandir. Lingvistik dalillar shuni ko'rsatadiki, proto-janubiy dravid tili miloddan avvalgi 2-ming yillik o'rtalarida gapirilgan va eski tamil miloddan avvalgi 6-asrda paydo bo'lgan. Tamil tilidagi eng qadimgi epigrafik matnlar keyinroq yozilgan deb hisoblanadi.[5] Hind tillari orasida Tamil tili boshqa tillardan farqli qadimgi hind adabiyoti namunalarini aks ettirgan tillardan biri.[6]
Kannada tarixi[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Kannada tili Janubiy Hindistondagi eng qadimgi tillardan biridir.[7][8][9][10] Og'zaki til o'zining proto-til manbasidan Tamil tilidan oldin va Tulu bilan bir vaqtda ajralib chiqqani aytiladi. Biroq, arxeologik dalillar bu til 1600—1650-yillarga tegishli ekanini ko'rsatadi. Kannada tilining dastlabki ko'rinishi boshqa janubiy hind tillarinikiga o'xshaydi.[11][12]
Xarosti[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Kharoṣthhi yozuvi, shuningdek, Gandhari yozuvi sifatida ham tanilgan, qadimgi abugida (alifbo yozuvining bir turi) bo'lib, qadimgi shimoli-g'arbiy Hindistonning Gandhara madaniyati tomonidan Gandhari va sanskrit tillarini yozish uchun foydalanilgan. U miloddan avvalgi 4-asrdan boshlab miloddan avvalgi 3-asrgacha o'z vatanida yo'q bo'lib ketgunga qadar ishlatilgan. U, shuningdek, Ipak yo'li bo'ylab ishlatilgan bo'lib, u miloddan avvalgi 7-asrgacha Xotan va Niyaning uzoq yo'l stansiyalarida saqlanib qolganligi haqida ba'zi dalillar mavjud.
Siddhaṃ[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
Siddhaṃ (Sanskrit, bajarilgan yoki mukammallashtirilgan), Gupta yozuvi orqali Brahmi yozuvidan kelib chiqqan bo'lib, bu Devanagari yozuvi bilan bir qatorda Tibet yozuvi kabi boshqa Osiyo yozuvlarini ham kelib chiqishiga sabab bo'lgan.
Nagari[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
11-asr atrofida Siddham yozuvidan kelib chiqqan.
Yana qarang[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
- Vedik sanskrit tilidagi substratum
- Hindiston yarim orolida fors tili
- Tamil tilidagi hind-aryan so'zlari
- Hindistonning lingvistik tadqiqoti
Manbalar[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
- ↑ Turner. „A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan languages“. Digital Dictionaries of South Asia. Oxford University Press (original), University of Chicago (web version). Qaraldi: 8-noyabr 2015-yil.
- ↑ Barbara A. West. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Oceania. Infobase Publishing, 1 January 2009 — 282– bet. ISBN 978-1-4381-1913-7.
- ↑ „Browse by Language Family“. Ethnologue.
- ↑ Southworth 2005, ss. 249–250
- ↑ Southworth 2005, ss. 250–251
- ↑ Sivathamby, K (December 1974) Early South Indian Society and Economy: The Tinai Concept, Social Scientist, Vol.3 No.5 December 1974
- ↑ Kamath 2001, ss. 5–6
- ↑ Purva HaleGannada or Pre-old Kannada was the language of Banavasi in the early Christian era, the Satavahana and Kadamba eras (Wilks in Rice, B.L. (1897), p490)
- ↑ Sri K. Appadurai. „The place of Kannada and Tamil in India's national culture“. INTAMM (1997). 15-aprel 2007-yilda asl nusxadan arxivlandi.
- ↑ Mahadevan 2003, s. 159 "earliest inscriptions in Kannada and Telugu occur more than half a millennium later [than the end of 3rd century or early 2nd century B.C.] ... earliest known literary work in Kannada is the Kavirajamarga, written early in the 9th century A.D."
- ↑ Kittel (1993), p1-2
- ↑ "Literature in Kannada owes a great deal to Sanskrit, the magic wand whose touch raised Kannada from a level of patois to that of a literary idiom". (Sastri 1955, p309)
Qo'shimcha manbalar[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
- Annamalai, E. „Modern Tamil“,. The Dravidian Languages Steever: . Routledge, 1998 — 100–128 bet. ISBN 978-0-415-10023-6.
- Bloch, J. Formation of the Marathi Language. Motilal Banarsidass, 1970. ISBN 978-81-208-2322-8.
- Steve Farmer, Richard Sproat, and Michael Witzel, The Collapse of the Indus-Script Thesis: The Myth of a Literate Harappan Civilization, EVJS, vol. 11 (2004), issue 2 (Dec)
- Ferro-Luzzi, G. Eichinger (2001). „Kavya in South India: Old Tamil Cankam Poetry“. Asian Folklore Studies. 60-jild, № 2. 373–374-bet. doi:10.2307/1179075. JSTOR 1179075.
- Hart, George (January–March 2004). „Kavya in South India: Old Tamil Cankam Poetry“. The Journal of the American Oriental Society. 124-jild, № 1. 180–-bet. doi:10.2307/4132191. JSTOR 4132191.
- Kamath, Suryanath U.. A Concise History of Karnataka: From Pre-historic Times to the Present. Bangalore: Jupiter books [First published 1980], 2001. OCLC 7796041.
- Kandiah, Thiru (1978). „Standard Language and Socio-Historical Parameters: Standard Lankan Tamil“. International Journal of the Sociology of Language. 1978-jild, № 16. 59–76-bet. doi:10.1515/ijsl.1978.16.59.
- Krishnamurti, Bhadriraju. The Dravidian Languages, Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-521-77111-5.
- Kuiper, F. B. J. (1958). „Two problems of old Tamil phonology I. The old Tamil āytam (with an appendix by K. Zvelebil)“. Indo-Iranian Journal. 2-jild, № 3. 191–224-bet. doi:10.1163/000000058790082452.
- Lehmann, Thomas „Old Tamil“,. The Dravidian Languages Steever: . Routledge, 1998 — 75–99 bet. ISBN 978-0-415-10023-6.
- Mahadevan, Iravatham. Early Tamil Epigraphy from the Earliest Times to the Sixth Century A.D, Harvard Oriental Series vol. 62. Harvard University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0-674-01227-1.
- Meenakshisundaran, TP. A history of Tamil language. Poona: Linguistic Society of India, 1965.
- Monius, Anne E. (November 2002). „Kavya in South India: Old Tamil Cankam Poetry“. The Journal of Asian Studies. 61-jild, № 4. 1404–1406-bet. doi:10.2307/3096501. JSTOR 3096501.
- Novetzke, Christian Lee. The Quotidian Revolution: Vernacularization, Religion, and the Premodern Public Sphere in India. Columbia University Press, 2016. ISBN 978-0-231-54241-8.
- Rajam, V. S. (1985). „The Duration of an Action-Real or Aspectual? The Evolution of the Present Tense in Tamil“. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 105-jild, № 2. 277–291-bet. doi:10.2307/601707. JSTOR 601707.
- Ramaswamy, Sumathy. Passions of the Tongue: Language Devotion in Tamil India, 1891–1970. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997. ISBN 978-0-585-10600-7.
- Salomon, Richard. Indian Epigraphy: A Guide to the Study of Inscriptions in Sanskrit, Prakrit, and the other Indo-Aryan Languages. Oxford University Press, 1998. ISBN 978-0-19-535666-3.
- Scharfe, Harmut. Kharoṣṭhī and Brāhmī. Journal of the American Oriental Society. 122 (2) 2002, p. 391–3.
- Shapiro, Michael C.. Language and society in South Asia. Dordrecht: Foris, 1983. ISBN 978-90-70176-55-6.
- Southworth, Franklin C.. Linguistic Archaeology of South Asia. RoutledgeCurzon, 2005. ISBN 978-0-415-33323-8.
- Stevens, John. Sacred Calligraphy of the East. [3rd ed. Rev.] (Boston : Shambala, 1995)
- Steever, Sanford „Introduction“,. The Dravidian Languages Steever: . Routledge, 1998 — 1–39 bet. ISBN 978-0-415-10023-6.
- Steever, Sanford. The Tamil auxiliary verb system. Routledge, 2005. ISBN 978-0-415-34672-6.
- Tharu, Susie. Women writing in India : 600 B.C. to the present. The Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 1991. ISBN 978-1-55861-026-2.
- Tieken, Herman. Kavya in South India: Old Tamil Cankam Poetry, Gonda Indological Studies, Volume X. Groningen: Egbert Forsten Publishing, 2001. ISBN 978-90-6980-134-6.
- Varadarajan, Mu.. A History of Tamil Literature. New Delhi: Sahitya Akademi, 1988.
- Zvelebil, Kamil. Companion studies to the history of Tamil literature. Leiden: Brill, 1992. ISBN 978-90-04-09365-2.
- Wilden, Eva (2002). „Towards an Internal Chronology of Old Tamil Caṅkam Literature Or How to Trace the Laws of a Poetic Universe“. Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde Südasiens. 46-jild. 105–133-bet. JSTOR 24007685.
Qo'shimcha o'qish[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
- GA Griersonning Hindiston boʻyicha lingvistik tadqiqoti maʼlumotlar bazasi (1904–1928, Kalkutta).
- Hindiston lingvistik tadqiqotidan olingan gramofon yozuvlari (1913–1929), Raqamli Janubiy Osiyo kutubxonasi
Havolalar[tahrir | manbasini tahrirlash]
- Kharoṣthī, Brahmi, Siddham, Devanagarī uchun omniglot alifbolari.
- Hind yozuvlari va tillari